Failures(M-Grow-Hill,微观经济学,王秋石)

Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/IrwinGovernmentPolicyandMarketFailuresChapter15Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-2LaugherCurveQ.Howmanyeconomistsdoesittaketoscrewinalightbulb?A.Eight.Onetoscrewitinandseventoholdeverythingelseconstant.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-3IntroductionShouldthegovernmentinterveneinthemarket?Theframeworkpresentedmightbecalledtheinvisiblehandframework.Invisiblehandframework–perfectlycompetitiveleadindividualstomakevoluntarychoicesthatareinsociety’sinterest.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-4MarketFailuresAmarketfailureoccurswhentheinvisiblehandpushesinsuchawaythatindividualdecisionsdonotleadtosociallydesirableoutcomes.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-5MarketFailuresAnytimeamarketfailureexists,thereisareasonforpossiblegovernmentinterventionintomarketstoimprovetheoutcome.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-6MarketFailuresBecausethepoliticsofimplementingthesolutionoftenleadstofurtherproblems,governmentinterventionmaynotnecessarilyimprovethesituation.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-7ExternalitiesExternalitiesaretheeffectofadecisiononathirdpartythatisnottakenintoaccountbythedecision-maker.Externalitiescanbebothpositiveandnegative.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-8ExternalitiesNegativeexternalitiesoccurwhentheeffectofadecisiononothersthatisnottakenintoaccountbythedecision-makerisdetrimentaltothethirdparty.Examplesincludesecond-handsmoke,waterpollution,andcongestion.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-9ExternalitiesPositiveexternalitiesoccurwhentheeffectofadecisiononothersthatisnottakenintoaccountbythedecision-makerisbeneficialtoothers.Examplesincludeinnovation,education,andnewbusinessformation.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-10NegativeExternalitiesWhennegativeexternalitiesensuethirdpartiesarehurt.Marginalsocialcostisgreaterthanmarginalprivatecost.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-11NegativeExternalitiesMarginalsocialcostincludesallthemarginalcostsbornebysociety.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-12NegativeExternalitiesMarginalsocialcostiscalculatedbyaddingthenegativeexternalitiesassociatedwithproductiontothemarginalprivatecostsofthatproduction.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-13TheEffectofaNegativeExternalityMarginalsocialbenefitMarginalprivatecostMarginalsocialcostCostQuantity0Q0P0Q1P1MarginalcostfromexternalityCopyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-14PositiveExternalitiesPrivatetradescanbenefitthirdpartiesnotinvolvedinthetrade.Marginalsocialbenefitequalsthemarginalprivatebenefitofconsumingagoodorserviceplusthepositiveexternalitiesresultingfromconsumingthatgoodorservice.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-15APositiveExternalityCostQuantity0MarginalbenefitofanexternalityD0=MarginalprivatebenefitD1=MarginalsocialbenefitQ0P0Q1P1S=MarginalprivateandsocialcostCopyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-16AlternativeMethodsofDealingwithExternalitiesExternalitiescanbedealtwithviadirectregulation,incentivepolicies,andvoluntarysolutions.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-17DirectRegulationAprogramofdirectregulationiswheretheamountofagoodpeopleareallowedtouseisdirectlylimitedbythegovernment.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-18DirectRegulationEconomistsdonotlikethissolutionsinceitdoesnotachievethedesiredendasefficiently(atthelowestcostpossibleintotalresourceswithoutconsiderationastowhopaysthosecosts)andfairlyaspossible.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-19DirectRegulationDirectregulationisinefficientbecauseitachievesagoalinamorecostlymannerthannecessary.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-20IncentivePoliciesIncentiveprogramsaremoreefficientthandirectregulatorypolicies.Thetwotypesofincentivepoliciesareeithertaxesormarketincentives.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-21TaxIncentivePoliciesAtaxincentiveprogramusesataxtocreateincentivesforindividualstostructuretheiractivitiesinawaythatisconsistentwiththedesiredends.Oftenthetaxyieldsthedesiredendmoreefficientlythanstraightregulation.Copyright©2001byTheMcGraw-HillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin15-22TaxIncentivePoliciesThissolutionembodiesameasure