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1IMPLEMENTINGENVIRONMENTALCOSTACCOUNTINGINSMALLANDMEDIUM-SIZEDCOMPANIES1．ENVIRONMENTALCOSTACCOUNTINGINSMESSinceitsinceptionsome30yearsago,EnvironmentalCostAccounting(ECA)hasreachedastageofdevelopmentwhereindividualECAsystemsareseparatedfromthecoreaccountingsystembasedanassessmentofenvironmentalcostswith(seeFichteretal.,1997,LetmatheandWagner,2002).Asenvironmentalcostsarecommonlyassessedasoverheadcosts,neithertheolderconceptsoffullcostsaccountingnortherelativelyrecentoneofdirectcostingappeartorepresentanappropriatebasisfortheimplementationofECA.Similartodevelopmentsinconventionalaccounting,thetheoreticalandconceptualsphereofECAhasfocusedonprocess-basedaccountingsincethe1990s(seeHallayandPfriem,1992,FischerandBlasius,1995,BMU/UBA,1996,Helleretal.,1995,Letmathe,1998,SpenglerandH.hre,1998).TakingavailableconceptsofECAintoconsideration,process-basedconceptsseemthebestoptionregardingtheestablishmentofECA(seeHeupelandWendisch,2002).Theseconcepts,however,havetobecontinuouslyrevisedtoensurethattheyworkwellwhenappliedinsmallandmedium-sizedcompanies.BasedontheframeworkforEnvironmentalManagementAccountingpresentedinBurrittetal.(2002),ourconceptofECAfocusesontwomaingroupsofenvironmentallyrelatedimpacts.Theseareenvironmentallyinducedfinancialeffectsandcompany-relatedeffectsonenvironmentalsystems(seeBurrittandSchaltegger,2000,p.58).Eachoftheseimpactsrelatetospecificcategoriesoffinancialandenvironmentalinformation.Theenvironmentallyinducedfinancialeffectsarerepresentedbymonetaryenvironmentalinformationandtheeffectsonenvironmentalsystemsarerepresentedbyphysicalenvironmentalinformation.Conventionalaccountingdealswithboth–monetaryaswellasphysicalunits–butdoesnotfocusonenvironmentalimpactassuch.ToarriveatapracticalsolutiontotheimplementationofECAinacompany’sexistingaccountingsystem,andtocomplywiththeproblemofdistinguishingbetweenmonetaryandphysicalaspects,anintegratedconceptisrequired.Asphysicalinformationisoftenthebasisforthemonetaryinformation(e.g.kilogramsofarawmaterialarethebasisforthemonetaryvaluationofrawmaterialconsumption),theintegration2ofthisinformationintotheaccountingsystemdatabaseisessential.Fromthere,thegenerationofphysicalenvironmentalandmonetary(environmental)informationwouldinmanycasesbefeasible.Formanycompanies,theprioritywouldbemonetary(environmental)informationforuseinforinstancedecisionsregardingresourceconsumptionsandinvestments.TheuseofECAinsmallandmedium-sizedenterprises(SME)isstillrelativelyrare,sopracticalexamplesavailableintheliteraturearefewandfarbetween.OneproblemisthatthedefinitionsofSMEsvarybetweencountries(seeKosmider,1993andReinemann,1999).InourworkthecriteriashowninTable1areusedtodescribesmallandmedium-sizedenterprises.Table1.Criteriaofsmallandmedium-sizedenterprisesNumberofemployeesTurnoverUpto500employeesTurnoveruptoEUR50mManagementOrganization-Owner-cum-entrepreneur-Divisionalorganizationisrare-Variesfromapatriarchalmanagement-Shortflowofinformationstyleintraditionalcompaniesandteamwork-Strongpersonalcommitmentinstart-upcompanies-Instructionandcontrollingwith-Top-downplanninginoldcompaniesdirectpersonalcontact-Delegationisrare-Lowlevelofformality-HighflexibilityFinancePersonnel-familycompany-easytosurveynumberofemployees-limitedpossibilitiesoffinancing-wideexpertise-highsatisfactionofemployeesSupplychainInnovation-closelyinvolvedinlocal-highpotentialofinnovationeconomiccyclesinspecialfields-intenserelationshipwithcustomersandsuppliers3Keepingthesecharacteristicsinmind,thechosenECAapproachshouldbeeasytoapply,shouldfacilitatethehandlingofcomplexstructuresandatthesametimebesuitedtothespecialneedsofSMEs.DespitetheirsizeSMEsareincreasinglyimplementingEnterpriseResourcePlanning(ERP)systemslikeSAPR/3,OracleandPeoplesoft.ERPsystemssupportbusinessprocessesacrossorganizational,temporalandgeographicalboundariesusingoneintegrateddatabase.TheprimaryuseofERPsystemsisforplanningandcontrollingproductionandadministrationprocessesofanenterprise.InSMEshowever,theyareoftenindividuallydesignedandthusnotstandardizedmakingtheintegrationofforinstancesoftwarethatsupportsECAimplementationproblematic.Examplescouldbetoolslikethe“eco-efficiency”approachofIMU(2003)orUmberto(2003)becausethesesolutionsworkwiththedatabaseofmorecomprehensivesoftwaresolutionslikeSAP,Oracle,Navisionorothers.Umbertosoftwareforexample(seeUmberto,2003)wouldrequirelargeinvestmentsandgreatbackgroundknowledgeofECA–whichisnotavailableinmostSMEs.TheECAapproachsuggestedinthischapterisbasedonanintegrativesolution–meaningthatanindividuallydevelopeddatabaseisused,andtheECAsolutionadopteddrawsontheexistingcostaccountingproceduresinthecompany.IncontrasttootherECAapproaches,theaimwastocreateanaccountingsystemthatenablesthecompaniestoindividuallyobtaintherelevantcostinformation.Theaimoftheresearchwasthustofindoutwhatcostinformationisrelevantforthecompany’sdecisiononenvironmentalissuesandhowtoobtainit.2．METHODFORIMPLEMENTINGECASettingupanECAsystemrequiresasystematicprocedure.TheprojectthusdevelopedamethodforimplementingECAinthecompaniesthatparticipatedinthepr