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EarningsandDiscrimination收入与歧视Chapter19Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.DifferencesinEarningsintheU.S.Today当前美国的收入差距uThetypicalphysicianearnsabout$200,000ayear.普通医生一年赚到20万美元左右。uThetypicalpoliceofficerearnsabout$50,000ayear.普通警官一年赚到5万美元左右。uThetypicalfarmworkerearnsabout$20,000ayear.普通农业工人一年赚到2万美元左右。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Whatcausesearningstovarysomuch?什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？uWagesaregovernedbylaborsupplyandlabordemand.工资由劳动供给与劳动需求决定。uLabordemandreflectsthemarginalproductivityoflabor.劳动需求反映了劳动的边际生产率。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Whatcausesearningstovarysomuch?什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？uInequilibrium,eachworkerispaidthevalueofhisorhermarginalcontributiontotheeconomy’sproductionofgoodsandservices.在均衡时，每个工人都得到了他对经济中物品与劳务生产的边际贡献的价值。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SomeDeterminantsofEquilibriumWages决定均衡工资的若干因素uCompensatingdifferentials补偿性差别工资uHumancapital人力资本uAbility,effort,andchance能力、努力和机遇uSignaling信号uThesuperstarphenomenon超级明星现象Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.CompensatingDifferentialsuCompensatingdifferentialsrefertodifferencesinwagesthatarisesfromnonmonetarycharacteristicsofdifferentjobs.uCoalminersarepaidmorethanotherswithsimilarlevelsofeducation.uNightshiftworkersarepaidmorethandayshiftworkers.uProfessorsarepaidlessthanlawyersanddoctors.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.补偿性差别工资u补偿性差别工资是指不同工作的非货币特性所引起的工资差别。u煤矿工人得到的工资高于其他有相似教育水平的工人。u夜班工人的工资高于同类白班工人。u教授的工资低于受教育时间大致相同的律师和医生。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.HumanCapital人力资本uHumancapitalistheaccumulationofinvestmentsinpeople.人力资本——对人的教育和在职培训投资的积累。uThemostimportanttypeofhumancapitaliseducation.最主要的人力资本是教育。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.HumanCapitaluEducationrepresentsanexpenditureofresourcesatonepointintimetoraiseproductivityinthefuture.uBytheyear2000,amanwithacollegedegreeearnedmorethan89percentmorethanwithoutone.Womenshoweda70percentincreaseinearningsduetoacollegedegree.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.人力资本u教育代表着为了提高未来生产率而在某一时点的资源支出。u2000年，一个有大学学位的男人的平均收入比没有大学学位的男人多89％。对于妇女来说，上大学的报酬高出70％。Table1AverageAnnualEarningsbyEducationalAttainmentCopyright©2004South-Western表1.受教育者的平均年收入Copyright©2004South-Western1980年2000年男人高中，未上大学36430美元36770美元大学毕业52492美元69421美元大学水平的额外百分点＋44％+89%妇女高中，未上大学14953美元17898美元大学毕业23170美元35431美元大学水平的额外百分点＋55％+98%注释：收入数据根据通货膨胀进行了调整，并用2000年美元表示。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Whyhasthegapinearningsbetweenskilledandunskilledworkersriseninrecentyears?uInternationaltradehasalteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.uChangesintechnologyhavealteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.为什么近年熟练工人与非熟练工人之间的收入差距扩大了呢？u国际贸易改变了对熟练劳动与非熟练劳动的相对需求。u技术变革改变了熟练劳动与非熟练劳动的相对需求。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Ability,Effort,andChancenNaturalabilityisimportantforworkersinalloccupations.nManypersonalcharacteristicsdeterminehowproductiveworkersareand,therefore,playaroleindeterminingthewagestheyearn.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.能力、努力和机遇n对所有职业的工人来说，天赋能力都是重要的。n许多个人特点决定了工人的劳动生产率，因此这些特点在决定工人所挣得的工资水平上起着重要作用。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.AnAlternativeViewofEducation:Signaling教育的另一种观点：信号uFirmsuseeducationalattainmentasawayofsortingbetweenhigh-abilityandlow-abilityworkers.企业把教育状况作为区分高能力工人与低能力工人的一种方法。uItisrationalforfirmstointerpretacollegedegreeasasignalofability.企业把大学学位解释为能力的信号是合理的。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheSuperstarPhenomenonuSuperstarsariseinmarketsthatexhibitthefollowingcharacteristics:uEverycustomerinthemarketwantstoenjoythegoodsuppliedbythebestproducer.uThegoodisproducedwithatechnologythatmakesitpossibleforthebestproducertosupplyeverycustomeratalowcost.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.超级明星现象u超级明星产生在有两个特点的市场上：u市场上每位顾客都想享受最优生产者提供的物品。u使最优生产者以低成本向每位顾客提供物品成为可能的是生产这种物品所用的技术。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWagesnWhyaresomeworkers’wagessetabovethelevelthatbringssupplyanddemandintoequilibrium?äMinimum-wagelawsäMarketpoweroflaborunionsäEfficiencywagesHarcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资n为什么一些工人的工资确定在高于使劳动供求均衡的水平上？ä最低工资法ä工会的市场势力ä效率工资Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWagesnUnionsäAunionisaworkerassociationthatbargainswithemployersoverwagesandworkingconditions.nStrikeäAstrikereferstotheorganizedwithdrawaloflaborfromafirmbyaunion.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资n工会ä工会——与雇主谈判工资和工作条件的工人协会。n罢工ä罢工——工会有组织地从企业撤出劳动。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-Wa