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Chapter5SEMANTICSReview1.Whatissemantics?2.Themajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning3.Lexicalmeaning4.Senserelationsbetweensentences5.Analysisofmeaning•Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning.(thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular)SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningNamingtheory(Plato)命名说Theconceptualistview概念论Contextualism(Bloomfield)语境论Behaviorism行为主义论Namingtheory(Plato)命名说•Wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.•词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。•Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix…3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred…Theconceptualistview概念论•Definition：oneconcerningmeaning.•Itisalsocalledideationaltheory（观念论）.SEMANTICTRIANGLE（语义三角）THOUGHT/REFERENCE（概念/思想/所指参照）(concept)形式与意义直接相关意义是在客观事物的基础上概括而成的SYMBOL/FORM………....…REFERENT(语言符号)（所指事物）(linguistic)(therealthingexistingintheworld)形式和所指之间没有必然的联系Contextualism(语境论)•Definition:Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:(1)Situationalcontext场景语境(2)linguisticsituation语言语境Behaviorism(行为主义论)Definition:aviewwhichdrawsonbehavioristpsychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）：意义就是讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应。（meaningasspeaker’sstimulusandhearer’sresponseThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_________r--------s_________RS=Jillseesanapple.r=Jillsays“I’mthirsty”.s=JackhearsJillsays“I’mthirsty”.R=JackpickstheappleforJill.3.LexicalmeaningSenseandreference(系统意义和指称意义）Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandde-contextualized.Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld.Differences1.系统意义具有相对的稳定性、明确性；而外指意义回因人、时、地而异，具有变化性、模糊性。2.一般说来，系统意义是抽象化了的定义，多具有非物质化特征；而外指意义会具有物质化的特征。3.有意义的词语都有系统意义，但不一定有外指意义。Synonymy（同义现象)Definition:refertothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms（同义词）TypesofSynonyms:1.Dialectalsynonyms（方言）e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2.Stylisticsynonyms（文体风格---正式、一般、口语）e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…3.Synonymsthatdifferinemotiveorevaluativemeaning（褒义或贬义）(e.g.collaboratorVs.accomplice)4.Collocationalsynonyms（搭配）e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms（语义不同）e.g.amaze,astound,…Polysemy（多义现象）Definition:referstothesamewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.(同一个词具有两个或两个以上不同的意义)Homonymy(同音/形异义）Homophones同音异形异义twowordsareidenticalinsound,butdifferentinbothspellingandmeaning.e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homographs同形异音异义twowordsareidenticalinspelling,butdifferentinbothsoundandmeaning.e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonyms同音同形异义twowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaning.e.g.fastadjfastv(斋戒）Hyponymy下义关系Definition:thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.(下义关系指的是一个更普遍,范围更广泛的词和一个更具体的词之间的关系.)Superordinate(上义）:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.意义上更普遍的那个词称为上坐标词.Hyponyms（下义）:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.意义更具体的词称为下义词.Antonymy（反义现象）•Gradableantonyms(等级反义词）•Complementaryantonyms（互补反义词）•Relationalopposites（关系对立）Gradableantonymy（等级反义词）(Itisamatterofdegree)good-----------------------bad•long-----------------------short•big-----------------------small–Canbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.–Canhavecomparativeforms.–Canbeaskedwithhow.否定一个词并不意味着肯定另一个词Complementaryantonyms(互补反义词)•Complementaryantonyms(互补反义词)----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…•否定一个词意味着肯定另一个词Relationalopposites(关系对立)•buy:sell•lend:borrow•give:receive•parent:child•husband:wife•teacher:student•above:below•before:after•host:guest•employer:employeeDefinition：Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.SenseRelationsBetweenSentences•1.XissynonymouswithY•2.XisinconsistentwithY•3.XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)•4.XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)•5.Xisacontradiction•6.XissemanticallyanomalousSenseRelationsBetweenSentences•1.XissynonymouswithY：X与Y同义•Theboykilledthecat.•Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.•2.XisinconsistentwithY：X与Y不一致•Hehasawife.•Heissingle.•3.XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)X蕴含Y•Maryhasbeentoshanghai.•Maryhasbeentochina.•4.XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)X预设Y•Hisbikeneedsrepairing.•Hehasabike.•5.XisacontradictionX自我矛盾•Myunmarriedsisterismarriedafarmer.•6.XissemanticallyanomalousX语义反常•Themanispregnant.Analysisofmeaning•ComponentialAnalysis(成分分析法)----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning（分析一个词）•PredicationAnalysis(述谓结构分析)----awayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.（分析一个句子）•Semanticfeatures:themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponentsexercisesTrueorFalse:1.Senseisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,whilethereferencedealswiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.2.Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.FT•3.Behaviouristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseit