语言学-semantics

SemanticsLecture6Coming…IntroducingSemanticsSentencemeaningLexicalmeaningSemantics–thestudyofmeaningdifferentsemantictheories1.IntroducingSemantics1.1Plato:ThenamingtheoryThewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.SignObjectLimitations?1.Applicabletonounsonly,butverbs,adjectives,andadverbssuchas“think”,“hard”,“slowly”aredefinitelynotlabelsofobjects.2.Withinnouns,inapplicabletothosethatdonotexistinrealitysuchas“ghost”,“dragon”,orabstractnotionssuchas“joy”,“impulse”.Nodirectlinkbetweenlinguisticsymbolsandobjects.Theyarelinkedthroughmediationofconceptsinthemind.1.2Ogden&Richards:ConceptualismstandsforReference:e.g.concept,thoughtSymbole.g.wordReferente.g.objectintheworldSemantictriangleCriticismonconceptualistviewHowtoidentifyconcepts?Howtoguaranteetheconceptisthesameinboththespeaker’sandthelistener’sminds?conceptgeneratedfromsocialconvention,sharedamongmanypeople,statedindictionariestheconceptinanindividual'smind,“subjective”meaningsthatarisefromindividual’spersonalexperiencedenotative:connotative:Examplesthin,sharp,steel,instrumentpainfultodescribeafoodwithlowenergyvaluegoodforhealthneedledenotation:connotation:low-caloriedenotation:connotation:Connotativemeaningsmaydifferineachindividual’smind.e.g.mouse,snakeDenotativemeanings(conventionalmeanings)maydifferfromplacetoplaceandfromtimetotime.e.g.leek,gayAconceptsoarbitrarilyproducedcannotberegardedastheword’smeaning.experience1.3CharlesS.Pierce:SemioticTriangleSignConceptObjecteachlineisatwo-waynegotiationdynamicratherthanstaticrelations2.SentenceMeaningpropositionanalysis2.1PropositionInformationreceiverfocusesattentiononmeaningratherthanformofasentence.What’sleftinlistener’smindismeaning,whichtakestheformofpropositions.Apropositionistheunitofmeaningthatidentifiesthesubjectmatterofastatement.ApropositioncomprisesapredicateVandasetofarguments.V(externalargument,internalargument(s))e.g.love(John,Mary)love(Mary,John)subjectobject(s)Howmanyargumentscantherebe?Thenumberofargumentsvariesfromzerotoseveraldependingontheverb.intransitivev(externalargument)Johnsmiles.smile(John)transitivev(externalargument,internalargument)Johnlikessmiling.like(John,smiling)ditransitivev(externalargument,internalarguments)JohngivesMaryasmile.give(John,Mary,smile)specialv(nullargument)Itrains.rain(null)Howtorepresentthefollowingsentencesintheformofpropositions?•Tomsmokes.•Tomsmoked.•Tomissmoking.•Tomhasbeensmoking.•DoesTomsmoke?•Tomdoesnotsmoke.Theycanallberegardedasthevariousgrammaticalrealizationsofthesameproposition.smokepst.(Tom)smokeneg.(Tom)smoke(Tom)smokeint.(Tom)ThefreshyoungtroopsdefeatedNapoleon'sarmy.a.Thetroopswerefresh.fresh(troops)b.Thetroopswereyoung.young(troops)c.ThearmybelongedtoNapoleon.belong(army,Napoleon)d.Thetroopsdefeatedthearmy.defeat(troops,army)2.1.1Sentence≥Proposition2.1.2CombiningpropositionsCoordination:Itlinkstwopropositionsbycoordinateconjunctionssuchasand,but,or.Thetroopswereyoung,andthearmybelongedtoNapoleon.Relativization:Onepropositionisattachedtoapartofanotherpropositioninordertorestrictorqualifythatpart,e.g.relativeclauses.ThetroopsdefeatedthearmythatbelongedtoNapoleon.Complementation:Onepropositionisusedtofillinanemptypartofanother.ThatWellingtonwonthebattlewasnice.ForWellingtontowinthebattlewasnice.Wellington'swinningofthebattlewasnice.Recursion:Coordination,relativizationandcomplementationcanbeappliedagainandagaintoformverycomplexsentences.WellingtonthoughtthatNapoleonsentanarmythatwasyoung.EveryonesuspectedthatWellingtonthoughtthatNapoleonsentanarmythatwasyoung.Difficultyincomprehensionisdirectlyproportionaltothecomplexityofpropositioncombination.Theprizethattheringthatthejewelerthatthemanthatshelikedvisitedmadewonwasgivenatthefair.Theprizethattheringthatthejewelerthatthemanthatshelikedvisitedmadewonwasgivenatthefair.Theprizewasgivenatthefair.Theprizewaswonbythering.Theringwasmadebythejeweler.Thejewelerwasvisitedbytheman.Themanwaslikedbyher.她喜欢的那位先生采访过的珠宝匠做的戒指得的奖是在博览会上颁发的。2.2ThematicrolesJohnsmiledanddied.smile(John)die(John)(instigatorofsomeaction)(entityaffectedbytheaction)agentthemeThematicroleisthesemanticroleplayedbyanargumentinrelationtoitspredicate.Since“thematic”beginswith“th”,whichcorrespondstotheGreekletterθ,whosenameis“theta”,ithasbecomestandardtoabbreviatetheexpression“thematicrole”to“thetarole”(“θ-role”).2.2.1theta-rolesAgent:instigatorofsomeaction.e.g.Johnthrewtheball.Theme:entityundergoingtheeffectofsomeaction.Oftenathemeisaccusative(andcanbecalledPatientaswell),e.g.JohnhitthecatHowever,itisnominativewithafewverbslikefall,die,etc.e.g.Thecatdied.Experiencer:entityexperiencingsomepsychologicalstate.e.g.Johnwashappy.Benefactive:entitybenefitingfromsomeaction.e.g.MaryboughtsomechocolateforJohn.Goal:entitytowardswhichsomethingmoves.e.g.MarypassedtheplatetoJohn.Source:entityfromwhichsomethingmoves.e.g.JohnreturnedfromLondon.Recipient:entityreceivingsomeentity.e.g.JohngotMaryapresent.Instrument:meansbywhichsomethingcomesabout.e