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Chapter11、Whatislanguage?语言Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.2、Designfeaturesoflanguage语言结构特征Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity(themostimportantfeatureoflanguage),displacement（Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconcepts,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.）3、Functionoflanguage语言的功能Theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,etc.Languagefunctionsincludeinformativefunction信息(themajorroleoflanguage),interpersonal人际function(peopleestablishtheirrelationshipwiththehelpoflanguage),performative行事function(byAustinandSearleinpragmatics),emotive表情function,phatic寒暄communion(someroutineexpressions),recreational娱乐function(takingpleasurefromlanguage)andmetalingual元语言function(Languagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself).4、Definitionoflinguistics语言学Thescientificstudyofhumanlanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.5、mainbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics语音学：studiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech。Phonology音系学：studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeasthepointofdeparture.Morphology形态学：isconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning—morphemesandword-formationprocesses.Syntax句法：isaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectsentences.Semantics语义学：examineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Pragmatics语用学：isthestudyofmeaningincontext.6、phoneme:音素音位isthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.7、importantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学中的重要区分1）descriptivevs.prescriptive描写vs规定：Thefirstisaprescriptivecommand,whilethesecondisadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.2）synchronicvs.Diachronic共时和历时：Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent)asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.3）langueandparole.语言和言语：Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances)aslangueandparole.4）competencevs.Performance语言能力和语言运用：Alanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledhislinguisticcompetence.Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.（byChomsky）.Chapter21、Phonetics语音学:thestudyofspeechsounds,whichispartofphonologyandprovidesthemeansfordescribingspeechsounds,anditstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade,transmitted,andreceived.Phonology音系学isconcernedwiththelinguisticknowledgeofspeechandthewaysinwhichthesespeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguage.Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:语音三领域1）Articulatory发音phonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2）Acoustic声学phonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3）perceptualorAuditoryphonetics感知听觉–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsounds2、Consonants辅音:producedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Vowels元音:producedwithoutsuchobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.区别：thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.阻塞气流。3、Mannersofarticulation:发音方式：stop/plosive塞音(oralstop,nasal鼻stop)、fricative摩擦音、approximant近似音、lateral边音、affricate塞擦音、nasal鼻音Placesofarticulation:发音部位：bilabial双唇音、labiodental唇齿、dental齿间、alveolar齿龈、postalveolar齿龈后、retroflex卷舌音、palatal硬腭、velar软腭、glottal声门.6、Thedescriptionofvowels：1）.theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)2）.thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)3）.thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short)4）.Lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded)7、Phoneme:(ofFrenchorigin,meansspeech-sound)音位aphonologicalunitofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.It’srepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.8、Minimalpair（最小对立体）:apairofwordsbetweenwhichthephonologicaldifferenceisminimalbecausetheyareidenticalinformexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring.9、Theallophones:thevariantsofaphoneme音位变体Theymustbephoneticallysimilarandincomplementarydistribution.条件10、Phoneticsimilarity发音近似性meansthattheallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Complementarydistribution互补分布状态:theyneveroccurinthesamecontext.11、Phonologicalprocess:音系过程定义atargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Anyphonologi