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LogicalFallacies因果分析中的逻辑谬误Thesearefamoustypesofbadlogicandreasoning.Ifyouknowaboutthese,youwillbemorecleveratcreatingargumentsandattackingyourenemy’sarguments.1.DictoSimpliciter,UnqualifiedGeneralization绝对判断Makinggeneralstatementsaboutcomplicatedsituationswhenyoudon’thaveevidenceisafallacy.Wordslike“always,all,never,every,most”canshowanunqualifiedgeneralization.Example:AllpeoplefromNewYorkarerude.2.HastyGeneralization轻率判断Itiswrongtomakeageneralizationwhenyouonlyhaveafewsamples.Example:PrinceWilliamhasblueeyes,BillClintonhasblueeyes,mydadhasblueeyes.Whitepeoplehaveblueeyes.3.AdHominem,PoisoningtheWell人身攻击/井下放毒Attackingandinsultingyourenemyinsteadoffocusingontheissueisafallacy.Example:ThePresidentcheatedonhiswifeandliedaboutit.He’sadirtyguy.Weshouldn’tusehiseconomicplan.4.AdPopulem,AppealtothePeople投其所好Tellingpeoplewhattheywanttohear,orwhattheyfear.Example:IknowIcancountonyouformoney,becauseyouaregenerous.5.AdMisercordiam,AppealtoPity诉诸同情Makingpeoplefeelpityandsadnesstogetwhatyouwantisafallacy.Example:Lookatthesepoorstarvingchildren.Sendmemoneynow!6.Testimonial,Association，证言证据/权威联想Someonegreatorfamousisassociatedwithyourargument.Example:Beethovenwasforcedbyhisdadtoplaymusic.Youshouldbetoo!7.PostHoc,AfterThatsoBecauseOfThat牵强附会/假性因果JustbecauseeventBhappenedaftereventAdoesn’tmeanAcausedB.Example:PresidentObamawaselectedin2008,andin2011America’seconomybegantorecover.Obamafixedtheeconomy!8.Either-Or,TwoAlternatives两难推理Offeringpeopleachoicebetweentwothingswithnomiddlegroundorotherpossibilitiesisoftenafallacy.Example:Doyouwantaclassleaderwhoisuglyandsmart,oronewhoisprettyandstupid?9.BeggingtheQuestion,CircularArguments循环论证Insteadofprovingthetruthofyourconclusion,youjustassumethattheconclusionistrue.Basically,itjustmeansyouavoidgivingrealevidence.Example:Seriouspunishmentpreventscrimebecauseitpreventscriminalsfromdoingbadthings.10.SlipperySlope滑坡理论Claimingthatoneeventwillleadtootherbadeventsisaslipperyslopeargument.Example:AmericamustdefeatthecommunistsinVietnam,orcommunistpartieswilltakecontrolofLaos,Cambodia,Thailand,Malaysia,andthentheworld!11.StrawMan稻草人谬误TomakeaStrawManargument,pretendyourenemysaidsomethingthathedidn’treallysay,thenattackthatargument.Youwillseemsmartandhewillseemstupid.Example:Theschoolleadersthinkwe’retoostupidandcarelesstokeepwaterheatersinourrooms.Don’ttheyknowthisisaschoolwithhighrequirements,andweallhavehighGaoKaoscores?Wearenotstupidatall!12.FalseAnalogyTomakeanargumentbasedonmisleading,superficial,orimplausiblecomparisons.Alsoknownasfaultyanalogy,weakanalogy,wrongfulcomparison,metaphorasargument,andanalogicalfallacy.Example:HarvardUniversitydoesn’tteachfreshmenwriting,soourhighschoolshouldn’tteachstudentswriting,too.13.AppealtotheWrongAuthorityThisfallacyiscommittedwhenthepersoninquestionisnotalegitimateauthorityonthesubject.Moreformally,ifpersonAisnotqualifiedtomakereliableclaimsinsubjectS,thentheargumentwillbefallaciousExample:Dr.JohanSkarn,wontheNobelPrizeinphysics,saysthatabortionisalwaysmorallywrong,regardlessofthesituation.Hehastoberight,afterall,heisarespectedexpertinhisfield.14.NonSequitur不依据前提的推理Afallacyinwhichaconclusiondoesnotfollowlogicallyfromwhatprecededit.Example:Werealizethatitwouldbeinthebestinterestofthecommunityandourchildrentoaddresstheissueexpeditiously.Inordertomakethishappen,Irespectfullyrequestaneight-monthpaymentdelaycallingforpaymentofthe$10millionobligationonAugust31,2015.15.RedHerring转移话题ARedHerringisafallacyinwhichanirrelevanttopicispresentedinordertodivertattentionfromtheoriginalissue.Thebasicideaistowinanargumentbyleadingattentionawayfromtheargumentandtoanothertopic.Example:Weadmitthatthismeasureispopular.Butwealsourgeyoutonotethattherearesomanybondissuesonthisballotthatthewholethingisgettingridiculous.16.ContradictoryPremises二立背反\大前提有矛盾Anargument(generallyconsideredalogicalfallacy)thatdrawsaconclusionfrominconsistentorincompatiblepremises.Essentially,apropositioniscontradictorywhenitassertsanddeniesthesamething.Example:IfGodcandoanything,HecanmakeastonesoheavythatHewon’tbeabletoliftit.Whichfallaciesareinthesestatements?Tellmewhythelogicisbad.1.Weshouldn’tspendmoneytoimprovethecanteen.Thecooksareallwife-beatingdrunks.2.Theschoolshouldn’timprovethedormitoriesbecausemostChinesedormsarehorrible.It’snormalhere.3.Studentsshouldhavemorepoliticsclasses.Gradeshavegoneupsinceweincreasedthenumberofpoliticsclasses.4.MaoZedonghadasimpledormitory.Youshouldhaveasimpledormitorytoo!5.Ifwespendmoremoneyonyourdormitory,wewon’thavemoneytohiregoodteachers.You’llgetabadeducation.6.Weshouldn’tforcetherestaurantownersattheWestGatetocleanupthestreetandtheirrestaurants.They’resopoor!Lotsofthecookshavenoeducation,andtheirprofitissolow.They’restrugglingtosurvive!7.Theclassleaderislaughingbehindyourback,forcingyououtofbedandmakingyougotolong,boringmeetings,becauseshegetsathrillbyhurtingyou.Classleaderscan’tpunishusfortheirpleasure!It’scruelandabusiveandunfair.Screwthatclassleader!8.Weneedclassmeetings!Ifwedon’thavethem,soonwewon’tseeeachother,andthenourclasswillhavenoorganization!9.W