英语语言学导论

Chapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticsWhatislanguage?Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunicationFeaturesofhumanlanguageCreativityLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingnovelmessages.Thegrammaticalrulesandthewordsofalanguagearefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.DualityLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.ArbitrarinessTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.DisplacementThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.CulturaltransmissionCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.InterchangeabilityAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.ReflexivityHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functionsTheideationalfunctionToidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.TheinterpersonalfunctionTogetalonginacommunity.ThetextualfunctionToformatext.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsmaybedefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.BranchesoflinguisticsInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsModernlinguisticsbeganintheearly20thcentury.ItfounderistheSwissscholar,FerdinanddeSaussure.(索绪尔)Chapter2PhoneticsWhatisphonetics?Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.(Itstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.)DescriptionofspeechsoundsDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsGeneralfeature:obstructionCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulationPlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:[f][v]Interdental:[][]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]Palatal:[][][t][d][j]Velar:[k][g][]Glottal:[h]MannersofarticulationThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricatives:[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]Affricates:[t][d]Liquids:[l][r]Glides:[w][j]Nasals:[m][n][]VoicingofarticulationThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.VoicedsoundsVoicelesssoundsChapter3PhonologyWhatisphonology?Phonologyisthestudyofsoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguage.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution–phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution–allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.SyllablestructureAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.Chapter4MorphologyWhatismorphology?Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.MorphemesandallomorphsThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.Thedifferentmorphsofthesamemorphemearecalledallomorphs.Conclusion:classificationofmorphemesMorphemesFreemorphemes:canbeusedindependentlyasawordBoundmorphemes:arethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedasaword,theymustbeattachedtotheothermorphemes.FormationofnewwordsDerivationDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.Derivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.CompoundingCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.Th