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Translationtheoriesinthewest•AccordingtoSteiner(1998:248-9),thehistoryofdiscourseontranslationisdividedintofourperiods:•(1)atraditionalperiod,fromthebeginningoftheChristianeratotheendoftheeighteenthcentury,whichisaperiodofimmediateempiricalfocus“•(2)aperiodoftheoryandhermeneuticinquiry,growingoutofGermanRomanticismaroundthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,•(3)amodernperiod,reachingwellintothetwentiethcentury,inwhichtheinfluenceofGeneralLinguisticsisincreasinglydominant•(4)thecontemporaryperiod,aculturalturntotranslationstudies.atraditionalperiod•Overtwomillennia,onlyafewauthorshavesucceededinintroducinganythingfundamentalornew.ThesecreatorsandtransformersincludeSaintJerome,Luther,Dryden,Holderlin,Novalis,Schleiermacher,Nietzsche,EzraPound,(1998:283)Cicero(西塞罗公元前106-前43年,古罗马政治家、雄辩家)•Isawthattoemploythesameexpressionsprofitedmenothing,whiletoemployotherswasapositivehindrance…AfterwardsIresolvedtotranslatefreelyGreekspeechesofthemosteminentorators.Asaconsequence,Inotonlyfoundmyselfusingthebestwords,andyetquitefamiliarones,butalsocoiningbyanalogycertainwordssuchaswouldbenewtoourpeople,providedonlytheywereappropriate(Robinson1997a:7).西塞罗主要观点•译者应该像演说家一样，使用符合古罗马语言习惯的语言来表达外来作品的内容。•直译是缺乏技巧的表现。翻译应保留词语最内层的东西，即意思。•翻译也是文学创作。•各种语言的修辞手段彼此相通，因此翻译可以做到风格对等。•提出“解释员”式翻译和“演说家”式翻译，即直译与意译。St.Jerome•Heinsistedon“theaccuratetransmissionofthemeaningofthetextratherthanthebuddingorator'sfreelyrangingimagination“.•Heintroducedthefirstmajorshiftinwesterntranslationtheory“.•Jeromemaintainedthemajortermsofsourcetextandtargettext,originalmeaningandtranslatedmeaning,theconceptsofliteralanddynamictranslation(wordforwordandsenseforsense“).•Interpretingtheoriginalmeaningcorrectlyinordertoreproduceitproperly(Gentzler1993:95).哲罗姆（347--420）•翻译不能始终字当句对，而必须采取灵活的原则。•应当区别对待文学翻译与宗教翻译。前者意译，后者直译。•正确的翻译必须依靠正确的理解。MartinLuther•Luthersaimistokeepcommunicationwithreadersandlisteners,buttheaudienceforhisnewtranslationofthescriptureswascomposednotofscholarsbutplainspeakersofvernacularGerman,themotherinherhouse,thechildreninthestreet,andthecommonmaninthemarket(Robinson1997a:25,modified).•wild,shaggy,rebellious马丁·路德（1483-1546）•翻译必须采用人民的语言。•翻译必须注重语法和意思的联系。译者不能与语法背道而驰，但更应该注意意思的理解和表达。•翻译必须遵循意译七原则。•翻译必须集思广益。JohnDryden•InthePrefacetohistranslationofOvidsEpistles(1680):•metaphrase…turninganauthorwordbyword,andlinebyline,fromonelanguageintoanother“.•“paraphrase,ortranslationwithlatitude…where[theauthor’s]wordsarenotsostrictlyfollowedbuthissense”.•imitation,wherethetranslatorassumestheliberty,notonlytovaryfromthewordsandthesense,buttoforsakethembothasheseesoccasion德莱顿（1631--1700）•翻译是艺术•翻译必须掌握原作特征•翻译必须考虑读者•译者必须绝对服从原作的意思，在译文的措词上可以有自由，意义上却毫无自由。•翻译可以借用外来词•翻译分三类：逐字译、意译、拟作2.GermanRomanticism•Atthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,amorephilosophicalandlessempirical,formationbegantoopenwithindiscoursesontranslationtheory.•Philologyprovidedarangeofnewandexotictextsandallowedtheexpertstoproducetranslationsaimedprimarilyatotherexperts,notthegeneralpublic.•Romanticismexaltedthetranslatorasacreativegeniusinhisownright,intouchwiththegeniusofhisoriginalandenrichingtheliteratureandlanguageintowhichheistranslating(Bassnett-McGuire1980:65).•Thestressonboththeoriginalauthorandthetranslatorasbeingartistswasnotpartoftraditionaldiscourseformations.•Schlegelwrotethat,intranslatingHomer,itwasnecessarytogetawayfromthenotionofliteralprecisionsocommonlyassociatedwithfidelity,becausetruthmustbethetranslatorshighest,indeedvirtuallyhisonly,mandate•FriedrichSchleiermacher’sOnDifferentMethodsofTranslating---themajordocumentofromantictranslationtheory,andoneofthemajordocumentsofWesterntranslationtheoryingeneral.•Schleiermacherdistinguishedbetweentheinterpreter(Dolmetscher)whoworksintheworldofcommerce,andthetranslatorproper(Ubersetzer)whoworksinthefieldsofscholarshipandart.•Forthetruetranslator,thereareonlytwochoices:toeither(1)disturbthewriteraslittleaspossibleandmovethereaderinhisdirection,or(2)disturbthereaderaslittleaspossibleandmovethewriterinhisdirection•Schleiermacherspreferencewasfortheformer.•Ifthetarget-languagereadersaretounderstand,theymustgraspthespiritofthelanguagenativetotheauthor,theymustbeabletogazeupontheauthor'sinimitablepatternsofthinkingandmeaning;buttheonlytoolsthatthetranslatorcanoffertheminpursuitofthesegoalsaretheirownlanguage,whichnowherequitecorrespondstotheauthor's,andhisownperson,hisowninconsistentlyclearunderstandingof,andvacillatingadmirationfor,theauthor.施莱尔马赫（1768--1834）•翻译分笔译和口译•翻译分真正的翻译（文学作品和科学作品的翻译，笔译）和机械的翻译（实用性的翻译，口译）•翻译必须正确理解语言思维的辩证关系。•翻译可以有两种途径。采用任何一种都必须坚持到底。3.TheEarlyandMiddleTwentiethCentury•DiscussioninEnglishoftranslationtheoryduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturycontinuedtobedominatedbythethemesofVictoriandiscourseontranslation,literalness,archaizing,pedantryandtheproductionofatextofsecond-rateliterarymeritforaneliteminority•AftertheSecondWorldWar,translationtheorywasprofoundlyinfluencedbyNoamChomskysconceptsofdeepstructureandsurfacestructure,andthefirststepsinmachinetranslation.•Inthisviewtranslationisarecodingorchangeofsurfacestructureinrepresentationofthe-no