Words-and-Phrases-in-Unit-2研究生英语

LOOKINGFORTHELIEWordsandPhrasesinUnit2WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT21WhenpeoplehearthatI'mwritinganarticleaboutdeception,they'requicktotellmehowtocatchaliar.Liarsalwayslooktotheleft,severalfriendssay;liarsalwayscovertheirmouths,saysamansittingnexttomeonaplane.Beliefsabouthowlyinglooksareplentifulandoftencontradictory:dependingonwhomyouchoosetobelieve,liarscanbedetectedbecausetheyfidgetalot,holdverystill,crosstheirlegs,crosstheirarms,lookup,lookdown,makeeyecontactorfailtomakeeyecontact.Freudthoughtanyonecouldspotdeceptionbypayingcloseenoughattention,sincetheliar,hewrote,chatterswithhisfinger-tips;betrayaloozesoutofhimateverypore.Nietzschewrotethatthemouthmaylie,butthefaceitmakesnonethelesstellsthetruth.2Thisideathatliarsareeasyisstillwithus.Justlastmonth,CharlesBond,apsychologistatTexasChristianUniversity,reportedthatamong2,520adultssurveyedin63countries,morethan70percentbelievethatliarstendtoaverttheirgazes.Themajoritybelievethatliarssquirm,stutter,touchorscratchthemselvesortelllongerstoriesthanusual.Theliarstereotypeexistsinjustabouteveryculture,Bondwrote,anditspersistencewouldbelesspuzzlingifwehadmorereasontoimaginethatitwastrue.Whatistrue,instead,isthatthereareasmanywaystolieasthereareliars;there'snosuchthingasadeadgiveaway.WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT23Mostpeoplethinkthey'regoodatspottingliars,butstudiesshowotherwise.Averysmallminorityofpeople,probablyfewerthan5percent,seemtohavesomeinnateabilitytosniffoutdeceptionwithaccuracy.Butingeneral,evenprofessionallie-catchers,likejudgesandcustomsofficials,perform,whentested,atalevelnotmuchbetterthanchance.Inotherwords,eventheexpertswouldhavebeenrightalmostasofteniftheyhadjustflippedacoin.Mostofthedevicesnowavailable,likethepolygraph,detectnottheliebutanxietyaboutthelie.Thepolygraphmeasuresphysiologicalresponsestostress,likeincreasesinbloodpressure,respirationrateandelectrodermalskinresponse.Soitcanmissthemostdangerousliars:theoneswhodon'tcarethatthey'relying,don'tknowthatthey'relyingorhavebeentrainedtolie.Itcanalsomissliarswithnothingtoloseifthey'redetected,thetruebelieverswillingtodieforthecause.WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT2WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT24Seriousliescanhavearangeofmotivesandimplications.Theycanbemalicious,likelyingaboutarival'sbehaviorinordertogethimfired,ormerelystrategic,likenottellingyourwifeaboutyourmistress.Noteveryoneofthemisaliethatneedstobeuncovered.Wehumansareactive,creativemammalswhocanrepresentwhatexistsasifitdidnot,andwhatdoesn'texistasifitdid,wroteDavidNyberg,avisitingscholaratBowdoinCollege,inTheVarnishedTruth.Concealment,obliqueness,silence,outrightlying—allhelptoholdNemesisatbay;allhelpusabidetoo-largehelpingsofreality.Learningtolieisanimportantpartofmaturation.Whatmakesachildabletostarttellinglies,usuallyataboutage3or4,isthathehasbegundevelopingatheoryofmind,theideathatwhatgoesoninhisheadisdifferentfromwhatgoesoninotherpeople'sheads.5Deceptionis,afterall,onetraitassociatedwiththeevolutionofhigherintelligence.AccordingtotheMachiavellianIntelligenceHypothesis,developedbyRichardByrneandAndrewWhiten,twoScottishprimatologistsattheUniversityofSt.AndrewsinFife,themoresocialaspecies,themoreintelligentitis.Thehypothesisholdsthatassocialinteractionsbecamemoreandmorecomplex,ourprimateancestorsevolvedsotheycouldengageinthetrickery,manipulation,skullduggeryandsleightofhandneededtoliveinlargesocialgroups,whichhelpedthemavoidpredatorsandsurvive.WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT26Allofasudden,theideathatintelligencebeganinsocialmanipulation,deceitandcunningcooperationseemstoexplaineverythingwehadalwayspuzzledabout,ByrneandWhitenwrote.In2004,Byrneandanothercolleague,NadiaCorp,lookedatthebrainsandbehaviorof18primatespeciesandfoundempiricalsupportforthehypothesis:thebiggertheneocortex,themoredeceptivethebehavior.WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT27Lyingisjustsoordinary,somuchapartofoureverydaylivesandeverydayconversations,thatwehardlynoticeit,saidBellaDePaulo,apsychologistattheUniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara.Andinmanycasesitwouldbemoredifficult,challengingandstressfulforpeopletotellthetruththantolie.WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT28DePaulosaidthatherresearchledhertobelievethatnotalllyingisbad,thatitoftenservesaperfectlyrespectablepurpose;infact,itissometimesanobler,oratleastkinder,optionthantellingthetruth.Icallthemkindheartedlies,theliesyoutelltoprotectsomeoneelse'slifeorfeelings,DePaulosaid.Akindheartedlieiswhenageneticcounselorsaysnothingwhenshehappenstofindout,duringastraightforwardtestforbirthdefects,thatamancouldnotpossiblyhavefatheredhiswife'snewbaby.It'swhenaneighborliesabouthidingaJewishfamilyinNazi-occupiedPoland.It'swhenadoctortellsaterminallyillpatientthatthenewchemotherapymightwork.Andit'swhenamothertellsherdaughterthatnothingbadwilleverhappentoher.WORDSANDPHRASESINUNIT29TheFederalgovernmenthasbeensupportingresearchrecentlytolookformachinesthatdetectthebraintracingsofdeception.Butthequestmightbedoomedtofailure,sinceitmightturnouttobeallbutimpossibletotellwhichtracingsaresignaturesoftrulydangerousliesandwhicharetheimagesofliesthatareharmlessandkindhearted,orself-servingwithoutbeingdange