语用学Pragmatics

2013Whatdothesechildrenstillneedtolearnaboutusinglanguage?Alittleboycomesinthefrontdoor.Mother:Wipeyourfeet,please.Heremoveshismuddyshoesandsocksandcarefullywipeshiscleanfeetonthedoormat.Afatheristryingtogethis3-yearolddaughtertoputonhershoes.Father:Whereareyourshoes?Daughter:Undermybed.Theproblemisthatthechildrenappeartohaveunderstoodwhatthewordsmeantbutnotwhattheirparentsmeant.Asadults,weusuallyarriveatthespeaker’smeaningsoeffortlesslythatwetendtobeunawareoftheconsiderableamountofskillandknowledgethatweusedtoaccomplishthis.utteranceSpeaker-------------------listenerCommunicatedbyinterpretedbycontextPragmaticsstudieswhatspeakermeanbytheirutterancesthanwhatwordsorphrasesmeanbythemselves.Pragmaticsisthestudyofspeakermeaning.Pragmaticsstudieswhotheyaretalkingto,where,whenandunderwhatcircumstances.Pragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning.Pragmaticsstudiesinvisiblemeaning.Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid.Whatdeterminesthechoicebetweenthesaidandunsaid.Theansweristiedtothenotionofdistances.Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheexpressionofrelativedistance.Syntaxstudiestherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticsformsandtheirwell-formedness.Semanticsstudiesonlylinguisticmeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences.Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.Onlypragmaticsallowshumansintotheanalysis.Provideasemanticmeaning(SM)andpragmaticmeanings(PM)forIt’scoldinhere.SM:Thetemperatureinthisplaceisfrigid.PM:Shutthewindow.PM:Let’sleavehere.PM:Wecanstoreourfoodhere.Semanticsconcentratesonthemeaningthatcomesfromlinguisticsknowledge,whilepragmaticsconcentratesonthoseaspectsofmeaningthatcannotbepredictedbylinguisticknowledgealoneandtakesintoaccountourknowledgeaboutthephysicalandsocialworld.Whenwestudyutterance,wetakecontextintoconsideration.manyutterancesweusedonotconsistoffullsentences.e.g.Jane:Coffee?Steve:Sure!Jane:White?Steve:Black.Twoormoreutterancesmighthavethesameunderlyingsentenceastheir“script”,buttheycanhavequitedifferentinterpretationsincontext.SomeregularitiescomefromMembersofsocialgroupsfollowgeneralpatternsofbehaviorexpectedwithinthegroup.Mostpeoplewithinalinguisticcommunityhavesimilarbasicexperienceoftheworld.(worldknowledge/schema)Theemphasisofpreviouslinguisticstudieshasbeenonabstract,potentialanduniversalaspectsoflanguage.Therehasbeenastronginterestinformalsystemofanalysiswhichderivedfrommathematicsandlogic.TheduckranuptoMaryandlickedher.*UpduckMarytotheran.(syntacticapproach)*ThebottleofketchupranuptoMary.[-animate](semanticapproach)TheduckranuptoMaryandlickedher.TruthconditionofthesentenceinformalsemanticsisTheduckranuptoMary.pTheducklickedher.qIfpistrueandqistrue,thenp&qistrue.Wheneverp&qistrue,thenq&pistrue.So,*TheducklickedMaryandranuptoher.Here“and,notaslogical&,butasthesequentialexpression“andthen”.Providethreealternativesfortheunderlinedutterance.Eachalternativeshouldpotentiallyhaveasimilarpragmaticmeaning,eventhoughthesemanticmeaningwouldbedifferent.a.Matt:Doyouwantsomecake?Chris:I’monadiet.b.Ed:Howwastheparty?Faye:Don’task!c.Matt:Lendmeapen.Chris:Here.Butit’srunningoutofink.Provideatfourcontextsforthefollowingdialogue.John:Look!Peter’scoming.Mary:Oh,IwishitwereSusan!Beloware4definitionsofpragmatics.Whatelementsdotheyhaveincommon?Doyounoticeanydifferencesinemphasis?Pragmaticsstudiesthefactorsthatgovernourchoiceoflanguageinsocialinteractionandtheeffectsofourchoiceonothers.(Crystal,1987,p.120)Pragmaticscanbeusefullydefinedasthestudyofhowutteranceshavemeaningsinsituations.(Leech,1983,p.x)Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid.(Yule,1996,p3)Thereisadistinctionbetweenahearer’sknowledgeofherlanguageandherknowledgeoftheworld.Inthissection,Ishallarguethatitisthisdistinctionthatunderliesthedistinctionbetweensemanticsandpragmatics.(Blakemore,1992,p.39)