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Chapter6SemanticsSemantics:itisgenerallydefinedasthestudyofinherenceorintrinsicmeaning,themeaninginisolationfromthecontext.Thenamingtheory:命名论itisoneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaningproposedbyPlato,whichholdstheviewthattherelationshipbetweenlinguisticformsandwhattheystandforisoneofnaming.Itsdefaults:firstly,thetheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly.Secondly,evenwithinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworldatallorthingsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects,butabstractnotions.Finally,somewordsmayhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentcontextswhilethesamereferencemayhavedifferentnamessuchas“themorningstar”and“theeveningstar”Theconceptualisttheory:意念论C.K.OgdenRichardcreatedthesemantictriangletoshowtheindirectrelationshipbetweensymbolsandtheirsupposedreferents.Symbol:itreferstothelinguisticelementssuchaswordorsentence.Referent:itreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience.Context:itreferstowhatcomesbeforeandafteraword,phrase,statement,etc.helpingtofixthemeaning;orreferstocircumstancesinwhichaneventoccurs.Contextualism:情境论、语境论JohnFirthSituationalcontext:itreferstotheparticularspatiotemporalsituationinwhichanutteranceoccurs,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,apartfromtheplaceandtimeoftheutterance,thespeakerandthehearer,theactionstheyareperformingatthetime,thevariousobjectsandeventsexistsinthesituation.Thelinguisticcontext:sometimesknownascontext,itincludesaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe“meaning”ofaword,and,alsothepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.Forexample,themeaningoftheword“paper”differsinthetwocollocationsof“apieceofpaper”and“awhitepaper”。Linguisticcontextalsoincludesthepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.Bloomfileddefinedthemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”Behaviorism:行为主义itisatheoryofanimalandhumanlearningthatonlyfocusesonobjectivelyobservablebehavioranddiscountmentalactivities.Sense:意义itistheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Reference:所指itiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysicalworld.Dialectalsynonyms:方言同义词theyarethesynonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectssuchasliftinBritishEnglishandelevatorinAmericanEnglish.Stylisticsynonyms:语体同义词theyarethesynonymsdifferinginstyle,ordegreeofformality,suchasgentleman/guy.Affectivesynonyms:情感同义词theyarethesynonymsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudesorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout,suchaslike/love/admire/adore/worship.Collocationalsynonyms:用于不同搭配的同义词theyarethesynonymsdifferingintheircollocations,suchasadoletotheunemployment/anofferingtothechurch.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms:theyarethesynonymsdifferingslightlyinwhattheymean,suchasescape/flee.Polysemy:多义关系itisatermusedinsemanticanalysistorefertoalexicalitemwhichhasmorethanonemeaning.Radiation:辐射性itisthesemanticprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecenterandthesecondarymeaningradiatesoutofit.Concatenation:连锁型itisthesemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovesgraduallyawayfromitsprimarymeaninginsuccessionsothatthepresentmeaningseemstohavenoconnectiontotheprimarymeaning.Homonymy:同音、同形异义词thephenomenonthatdifferentwordsmaybeidenticalinsoundorspellingorinbothiscalledhomonymy.Homographs:同形异义theyarethewordswhichhappentobethesameinspelling,butdifferbothinsoundsandmeaning.Homophones:同音异义theyarethewordswhichhappentobeidenticalinsound,butdifferbothinspellingandmeaning.Completehomonyms:同音、同形异义theyarethewordswhichhappentobeidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferinmeaning.Hyponymy:itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Itisconcernedwithsemanticinclusion.Superordinate:上座标词itreferstothewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponym:下义词itreferstothemorespecificword.Co-hyponym:itreferstohyponymofthesamesuperordinate.Gradableantonyms:可分等级反义词theyaretheantonymswhichdifferintermsofdegree.Complementaryantonyms：互补反义词theyarenon-gradableantonymswhicharesemanticallycomplementarytoeachother,therefore,theydonotpermitdegreesofcontrast.Converseantonyms:逆反反义词theyaretheantonymswhichareinterdependent,showingthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.4SentencemeaningSentencemeaning:Asentencemeaningisabstract,context-independentincontrasttoutterancemeaningwhichisconcreteandcontext-dependent.Entailment(包含关系)：Entailmentisbasicallyasemanticrelation(orlogicalimplication).Itreferstosomethingthatlogicallyfollowswhatisassertedintheutterance.Presupposition（预设关系）:Apresuppositioninsemanticsreferstowhatisassumedbythespeakerand\orassumedbyhimtobeknowntothehearerbeforehemakestheutterance.Inabroadersense,presuppositioncanbedefinedinordinarylanguageasanykindofbackgroundassumptionagainstwhichanaction,theory,expressionorutterancemakessenseorisrational.5AnalysisofMeaningComponentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningThewordmancanbeanalyzedintoaseriesofsemanticfeaturessuchas[+MAN,+ADULT,+MAN](+meansthepresenceofafeaturewhile-meanstheabsenceofafeature).Componentialanalysis（成分分析法）：Itisawayproposedbystructuralsemanticiststoan