语言学Chapter-6-Pragmatics

Chapter6PragmaticsContents•Introduction•MicropragmaticsReference指称Deixis指示Anaphora回指Presupposition预设•MacropragmaticsSpeechActTheoryTheCooperativePrincipleThePolitenessPrinciple6.1Introduction•YouneedtoknowthedefinitionofpragmaticsthedifferencesbetweengrammaticalanalysisandpragmaticanalysisTodayisSunday.definitionofpragmatics•thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;•thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning;•thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.thedifferencesbetweengrammaticalanalysisandpragmaticanalysis•rules/principles•products/processes6.2MicropragmaticsReferenceDeixisAnaphoraPresupposition6.2.1Reference•a.Whereisthefreshsaladsitting?•b.He’ssittingbythedoor.•a.CanIlookatyourShakespeare?•b.Sure,it’sontheshelfoverthere.•Youneedtoknow•inference:process•reference:theact6.2.2Deixis•Youneedtoknow:definitionofdeixisfivetypesofdeixisdefinitionofdeixisfivetypesofdeixis•Persondeixis•Timedeixis•Spacedeixis•Discoursedeixis•Socialdeixis6.2.3Anaphora•Youneedtoknow:definitionofanaphora,antecedent,anaphorindirectanaphoraanddirectanaphora6.2.4Presupposition•Youneedtoknow:definitionofpresupposition,presuppositiontriggersexamplesofpresuppositiontriggers6.3.1Speechacttheory言语行为理论•illocutionaryacts•classificationofillocutionaryacts•indirectspeechacts•SpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”6.3.1.1Illocutionaryacts言外行为•Youneedtoknowdefinitionofspeechacts,performativesentences,felicityconditionsthreekindsofacts(言语行为三分说)SomebasicnotionsinPragmatics•Context•Pragmaticsvs.semantics•Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning•Correctnessvs.appropriatenessContext•Context----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.….Pragmaticsvs.semantics•Semantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).•Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.•“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning----Sentencemeaning:•Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;•literalmeaningofasentence;•havingadyadicrelationasin:WhatdoesXmean?----utterancemeaning:•concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;•intendedmeaningofaspeaker;•havingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyX?Forexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmean•abagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);•anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;•thespeakerisdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp.•Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.Correctnessvs.appropriateness•*“Johnplaygolf”----grammaticallyincorrect;•?“GolfplayedJohn”----logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.•Note:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)SpeechacttheoryTwotypesofutterances•Constatives(叙述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;•Performatives(施为句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.•Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.SomeExamplesofPerformatives•“Ido”•“InamethisshipElizabeth.”•“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”•“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”•“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”Austin’snewmodelofspeechacts----AccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.•Thelocutionaryact----anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);•Theillocutionaryact----anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).•Theperlocutionaryact----anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”•Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;•Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;•Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehear