ScienceandtheScientificAttitudebyPaulG.HewittScienceisthebodyofknowledgeaboutnaturethatrepresentsthecollectiveefforts,insights,findings,andwisdomofthehumanrace.Scienceisnotsomethingnewbuthaditsbeginningsbeforerecordedhistorywhenhumansfirstdiscoveredreoccurringrelationshipsaroundthem.Throughcarefulobservationsoftheserelationships,theybegantoknownatureand,becauseofnature'sdependability,foundtheycouldmakepredictionstoenablesomecontrolovertheirsurroundings.科学是关于自然地知识总体,它代表了人类的共同努力、洞察力、研究成果和智慧。科学并不是什么新的东西,在有文字记载的历史以前,当人们最初发现了在他们周围反复出现的各种关系时,就有了科学的开端。通过对这些关系的仔细观察,人们开始了解了自然,而由于自然的可靠性,人们还发现他们能够作出预测,从而有可能在某种程度上控制他们的周围环境。Sciencemadeitsgreatestheadwayinthesixteenthcenturywhenpeoplebeganaskinganswerablequestionsaboutnature--whentheybeganreplacingsuperstitionbyasystematicsearchfororder--whenexperimentinadditiontologicwasusedtotestideas.Wherepeopleoncetriedtoinfluencenaturaleventswithmagicandsupernaturalforces,theynowhadsciencetoguidethem.Advancewasslow,however,becauseofthepowerfuloppositiontoscientificmethodsandideas.科学在16世纪取得了最伟大的进展,因为这时人们提出了有关自然地可以回答的问题,开始以对自然规律的系统研究代替了迷信,而且除了运用逻辑外,还运用实验来检验各种观点。以前人们曾试图用巫术和超自然的力量来影响自然事件,而现在有了科学来指导他们。然而由于对科学方法和科学思想的强有力的反对,进展是缓慢的。Inabout1510Copernicussuggestedthatthesunwasstationaryandthattheearthrevolvedaboutthesun.Herefutedtheideathattheearthwasthecenteroftheuniverse.Afteryearsofhesitation,hepublishedhisfindingsbutdiedbeforehisbookwascirculated.HisbookwasconsideredhereticalanddangerousandwasbannedbytheChurchfor200years.AcenturyafterCopernicus,themathematicianBrunowasburnedatthestake--largelyforsupportingCopernicus,suggestingthesuntobeastar,andsuggestingthatspacewasinfinite.GalileowasimprisonedforpopularizingtheCopernicantheoryandforhisothercontributionstoscientificthought.Yetacoupleofcenturieslater,Copernicanadvocatesseemedharmless.哥白尼在1510年前后指出,太阳是静止不动的,地球绕着太阳旋转。他驳斥了地球是宇宙中心的观点。经过多年的犹豫,他发表了自己的研究成果,但他没等到自己的著作广为流传便去世了。他的著作被认为是危险的异端邪说,被教会查禁了200年之久。在哥白尼之后一百年,数学家布鲁诺被烧死在火刑柱上—主要原因就是他支持哥白尼,认为太阳是一颗恒星,空间是无限的。伽利略因普及哥白尼的理论和他对科学思想的其他贡献而遭到囚禁。然而,两个世纪之后,哥白尼的鼓吹者似乎就无害了。Thishappensageafterage.Intheearly1800sgeologistsmetwithviolentcondemnationbecausetheydifferedwiththeGenesisaccountofcreation.Laterinthesamecentury,geologywassafe,buttheoriesofevolutionwerecondemnedandtheteachingofthemforbidden.Thismostlikelycontinues.Ateverycrosswayontheroadthatleadstothefuture,eachprogressivespiritisopposedbyathousandmenappointedtoguardthepast.Everyagehasoneormoregroupsofintellectualrebelswhoarepersecuted,condemned,orsuppressedatthetime;buttoalaterage,theyseemharmlessandoftenessentialtotheelevationofhumanconditions.这种事情一个时代接着一个时代发生。19世纪初,地质学家们因同《创世纪》有关创世的叙述相左而遭到强烈谴责。同一世纪的晚些时候,地质学安全了,但关于进化的理论却遭到谴责,被禁止讲授。这种情况很可能会继续下去。“在通向未来的每一个十字路口,每一个具有进步思想的人都会遭到受命维护过去的千名卫道士的反对。”每个时代都有一批或几批叛逆的知识分子在当时遭到迫害、谴责或镇压,但对后一个时代来说,他们便似乎无害了,而且对于改善人类的状况往往还是必不可少的。Theenormoussuccessofsciencehasledtothegeneralbeliefthatscientistshavedevelopedandateemployingamethod-amethodthatisextremelyeffectiveingaining,organizing,andapplyingnewknowledge.Galileo,famousscientistofthe1600s,isusuallycreditedwithbeingtheFatheroftheScientificMethod.Hismethodisessentiallyasfollows:1.Recognizeaproblem.2.Guessananswer.3.Predicttheconsequencesoftheguess.4.Performexperimentstotestpredictions.5.Formulatethesimplesttheoryorganizesthethreemainingredients:guess,prediction,experimentaloutcome.科学的巨大成功导致人们普遍产生了这样一种信念,即科学家们已经制定出来并正在运用着一种方法——一种在获取、组织和应用新知识方面极为有效地方法。17世纪的著名科学家伽利略通常被认为是科学方法之父。他的方法主要如下:1、确认一个问题2、猜测一个答案3、预言这一猜测的后果4、做实验以检验这些预言5、用公式表达能概括猜测、预言和实验结果这三大要素的最简明的理论Althoughthiscookbookmethodhasacertainappeal,tohasnotbeenthekeytomostofthebreakthroughsanddiscoveriesinscience.Trialanderror,experimentationwithoutguessing,accidentaldiscovery,andothermethodsaccountformuchoftheprogressinscience.Ratherthanaparticularmethod,thesuccessofsciencehasmoretodowithanattitudecommontoscientists.Thisattitudeisessentiallyoneofinquiry,experimentation,andhumilitybeforethefacts.Ifascientistholdsanideatobetrueandfindsanycounterevidencewhatever,theideaiseithermodifiedorabandoned.Inthescientificspirit,theideamustbemodifiedorabandonedinspiteofthereputationofthepersonadvocatingit.Asanexample,thegreatlyrespectedGreekphilosopherAristotlesaidthatfallingbodiesfallataspeedproportionaltotheirweight.Thisfalseideawasheldtobetrueformorethan2,000yearsbecauseofAristotle'simmenseauthority.Inthescientificspirit,however,asingleverifiableexperimenttothecontraryoutweighsanyauthority,regardlessofreputationorthenumberoffollowersandadvocates.尽管这种菜谱式的方法有一定的吸引力,但它并不是大多数科学上的突破和发现的关键。反复试验、事先不做猜测的实验、偶然的发现以及其他一些方法才是科学上许多进步的原因所在。科学的成功与其说取决于某种特定的方法,不如说与科学家们所共有的一种态度更为有关。从根本上来讲,这种态度是一种探究、实验、尊重事实的态度。如果一位科学家认为某个想法是正确的,而随后又发现了任何相反的证据,他就会修正这一想法或完全放弃它。依照科学的精神,不管提出这一想法的人有多高的名望,这一观点都必须修正或放弃。例如,深受人们敬仰的希腊哲学家亚里士多德说过,落体的降落速度是同它们的重量成正比的。然而,依照科学的精神,一次可证实相反结论的实验就可以胜过任何权威,不管该权威有多高的声望,也不管他有多少的追随者和鼓吹者。Scientistsmustacceptfactsevenwhentheywouldlikethemtobedifferent.Theymuststrivetodistinguishbetweenwhattheyseeandwhattheywishtosee--forhumanity'scapacityforself-deceptionisvast.Peoplehavetraditionallytendedtoadoptgeneralrules,beliefs,creeds,theories,andideaswit