1MODULE3TheViolenceofNatureEarthquakesarethemostdangerousanddeadlyofallnaturalevents.Theyoccurinmanypartsoftheworld.GiantearthquakeshavebeenrecordedinIran,China,Guatemala,Chile,India,andAlaska.TwoofthebiggestearthquakesthatwereeverrecordedtookplaceinChinaandAlaska.Theseearthquakesmeasuredabout8.5ontheRichterScale.TheRichterScalewasdevisedbyCharlesRichterin1935tocomparetheenergylevelofearthquakes.Anearthquakethatmeasuresa2onthescalecanbefeltbutcauseslittledamage.Onethatmeasures4.5onthescalecancauseslightdamage,andanearthquakethathasareadingofover7cancausemajordamage.Itisimportanttonotethatareadingof4indicatesanearthquaketentimesasstrongasonewithareadingof3.Soscientistswanttobeabletopredictthoseearthquakesthathaveareadingofover4ontheRichterScale.Howdoearthquakesoccur?Earthquakesarecausedbytheshiftingofrocksalongcracks,orfaults,intheearth'scrust.Thefaultisproducedwhenrocksneareachotherarepulledindifferentdirections.Thebest-knownfaultinNorthAmericaistheSanAndreasfaultinthestateofCaliforniaintheUnitedStates.Canearthquakesbepredicted?Scientistsareworkingonprogramstopredictthetimeandplaceofearthquakes.Theyhopetodevelopanearlywarningsystemthatcanbeusedtoforecastearthquakessothatpeoplecanbesaved.ThenationsthatareactivelyinvolvedinearthquakepredictionprogramsincludeJapan,China,Russia,andtheUnitedStates.Thesecountrieshavesetupseismicnetworksinareasoftheircountrieswhereearthquakesareknowntooccur.Thesenetworksareonthealertforwarningsignsthatshowtheweakeningofrocklayersthatcanprecedeanearthquake.Manykindsofseismicinstrumentsareusedbythenetworkstomonitorthemovementsoftheearth'scrust.Thescientistsalsocheckwaterindeepwells.Theywatchfor地震是自然灾害中最危险、最致命的,世界许多地方都曾发生过。伊朗、中国、危地马拉、智利、印度和阿拉斯加都有过大地震的记录。有记载的最大两次地震发生在中国和阿拉斯加。这两次地震经测量约为里氏8.5级。里氏震级是1935年查尔斯·里克特发明的,用来比较地震的能量等级。里氏地震级测出的2级地震可以感觉到,但几乎没什么破坏;测出的4.5级地震能够造成轻微破坏,等级超过7级的地震会带来重大破坏。必须注意的是,等级为4级的地震表明其强度是等级为3级的10倍。所以,科学家想要预测的就是那些等级超过里氏4级的地震。地震是怎么发生的呢?地震是由地壳中的裂缝,或称断层处的岩石发生移位而引起的。当邻近岩石受到不同方向的拉力时便产生了断层。北美洲最著名的断层是位于美国加利福尼亚的圣安德烈亚斯断层。地震可以预报吗?科学家们正致力于研究预报何时何地会发生地震的计划,他们希望开发一种早期报警系统用来预报地震,以挽救人们的生命。积极参与地震预测计划的国家包括日本、中国、俄罗斯和美国。这些国家在已知发生地震的地区建立了地震网络,这些网络一直处于戒备状态,搜索着告警的迹象,这些迹象显示出在地震前可能发生的岩层松动的状况。这些网络使用多种地震仪器来监测地壳的运动。科学家还检查深井里的水,观察与断层运动有关的水位与温度的变化。changesinthewaterlevelandtemperaturethatareassociatedwithmovementalong2faults.Scientistsalsohopetopredictearthquakesbymeasuringradoningroundwater.Radonisagasthatcomesfromtheradioactivedecayofradiuminrocks.Thegasflowsthroughthegroundanddissolvesinundergroundstreamsandwells.Scientistsspeculatethattheamountofradonincreasesinthegroundwhenrockslayersshift,exposingnewrock,andthusmoreradon.ChineseandRussianscientistshavereportedthatinplaceswherestressisbuildingup,theradonlevelsofthewaterbuilduptoo.Whentheradonlevelsofthewatersubsideanddropbacktonormalreadings,anearthquakemayoccur.UnitedStatesscientistshavealsoplacedradonmonitoringstationsinearthquakezones,particularlyCalifornia.However,allthescientistsagreethatmoredataisnecessarytoprovethatradonlevelsinwaterareassociatedwiththepossiblebirthofanearthquake.Earthquakepredictionisstillayoungscience.Everyoneagreesthatearthquakescannotbepredictedwithanyreliability.Scientistshaveonlyapartialunderstandingofthephysicalprocessesthatcauseearthquakes.Muchmoreresearchhastobedone.Newandmoreup-to-datemethodshavetobefoundforcollectingearthquakedataandanalyzingit.However,scientistshavehadsomesuccessinpredictingearthquakes.SeveralsmallearthquakeswerepredictedinNewYorkState,intheeasternpartoftheUnitedStates.ChinesescientistspredictedamajoroneinHaichengin1975,andRussianscientistspredictedamajoroneinGarmin1978.Whilethisisasmallstart,itisstillabeginning.[科学家们还希望通过测量地下水的氡含量来预测地震。氡是来自岩石中镭辐射衰变而产生的气体。这种气体溢出地面并溶解到地下溪流和井里。科学家推测,当岩层移位时,新岩石露出,产生更多的氡,这样地层中的氡数量就增加了。中国和俄罗斯报告说,压力增加的地方,水中氡的含量也会增加。当水中氡的含量下降,回到正常读数时,地震就可能发生。美国科学家也在地震区,特别是加利福尼亚,设置了监测站。不过,所有的科学家都一致认为,需要更多的资料才能证明水中氡的含量和可能发生的地震有关。地震预测仍然是一门新兴的科学。人们都认为地震不可能被准确、可靠地预测。科学家对引起地震的物理过程只是部分了解,还必须做更多的研究,必须找到新的、更先进的方法收集地震数据并加以分析。不过,科学家已经在地震预测方面取得了一些成功:美国东部纽约州的几次小地震就已预测到了,1975年中国科学家预测到了海城大地震,1978年俄罗斯科学家预测到了加尔姆大地震。虽然这只是个小小的起步,但毕竟是一个开端。