语言学chapter2

Chapter2phonology1,whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?Thetwomajormediaofcommunicationarespeechandwriting.Speechismorebasicthanwriting.Becausethewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises,andineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundsthatiscalledvoicing.Itiscausedbyvocalcordswhichmayalsobeheldtogethertightlysothattheairstreamvibrateshematdifferentspeeds.3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer.Broadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.Narrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics,whichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutthefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonecanpossibledo.Forexample,inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesound[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Asamatteroffact,thesound[l]inallthesefoursoundcombinationdifferslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledclear[l],andnodiacriticisneedtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin“leaf”.Itiscalleddark[ɫ]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[˜]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination[helθ],thesound[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[θ],itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[l],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[、]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[phɪt]andspitistranscribedas[spɪt].4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasalsandglides.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velarandglottal.5.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionofthetongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest,vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andback.Andaccordingtotheopennessofthemouth,vowelscanbeclassifiedintoclosevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowelsandopenvowels.Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[a:],areroundedvowels.Accordingtothelengthofthesound,vowelscanbeclassifiedintotenseandlaxvowels.6.Givethephoneticsymbolfroeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:(1)voicedpalatalaffricate:[ʤ](2)voicelesslabiodentalfricative:[f](3)voicedalveolarstop:[d](4)front,close,short:[i](5)back,semi-open,long:[ɔ:](6)voiceless,bilabialstop:[p]Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:(1)[d]:voicedalveolarstop(2)[l]:voicedalveolarliquids(3)[ʧ]:voicelesspalatalaffricate(4)[w]:voicedbilabialglides(5)[ʊ]:back,close,short(6)[æ]:front,open,short7.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,[l]and[ɫ],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thedifferencebetweenthesesoundsiswhatthephoneticianareinterestedin.Becausephonologyisconcernedwiththesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage,butphoneticianisinterestedinhowtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess.8.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Allophonesarethedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.Sequentialrulesrefertothewaysthephonemescanbecombined.Sequentialrulesregulatewhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.Theyarerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenex