语言学讲义

1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguisticsphonology：音韵学,语言学一门研究各种语言内部语音模式的学科。历时音系学(历史音系学)考查和分析语音声音体系在一段时间内的变化，如英语sea(海)和see(看见)这两个词中的元音曾一度发音不同，而演变至今则发同样的音。共时音系学(描写音系学)研究一种语言在其发展的某一个别阶段的语音，揭示它可能存在的语音模式(如英语里nt和rk这两组音只能出现在词的中间和词尾，而不能出现在词首)。phonetics：语音学,发音学研究言语的声音学科。语音学研究它们的发音(发音语音学)、声学性质(声学语音学)，以及如何组合起来构成音节、词语和句子(语言语音学)。最早的语音学家为印度学者(约公元前300)，他们试图保存梵文经文的发音。古代的希腊人被证明是首次以语音字母作为书写系统的人。现代语音学的创立者为A.M.贝尔(1819～1905)，其《语音图解法》(1867)研发一套书写语音的精确符号体系。20世纪时，语言学家专注于开发一种分类系统，可以用来比较所有的人类语音。现代语音学关注的另一个方面是语音感知的心理过程。morphology（形态学）是对单词的结构的分析，一般认为是syntax的最小单位。morphologyistheidentification,analysisanddescriptionofstructureofwords，andwordsaregenerallyacceptedasbeing(withclitics)thesmallestunitsofsyntax.syntax(句法学)指的是对构造句子时应该遵循的原则。（狭义上就是语法）syntaxisthestudyoftheprinciplesandrulesforconstructingsentencesinnaturallanguages。语义学又称作词义学（Semantics，来自于希腊语semantikos），对中文等方块文字而言，则称为字义学。研究对象是词语，是词汇学的一个分支。主要研究词义。词和词之间的各种关系是语义学研究的一个主要方面，例如同义词、反义词，同音词等，找出词语之间的细微差别，让人们更准确地使用词语。3.SomeBasicDistinctions(区分)inLinguistics3.1SpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple(原则)oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope(范畴)andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.3.2Descriptive(描述性)orPrescriptive(说明性)Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesforcorrectbehavior.3.3Synchronic(共时)andDiachronic(历时)StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.3.4Langue(语言)andParole(言语)ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure(索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized(实际的)language,orrealizationoflangue.3.5Competence(能力)andPerformance(行为)Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances(发声).4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics(语音学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology(音韵学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology(词法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax(句法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics(语义学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics(应用语言学)isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics(历史语言学)isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics(人文语言学)usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学)studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics(数学语言学)studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics(计算语言学)isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconcepts(概念)areapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics(语音学）1.scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate(协调）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated(调节）bytheear,theauditorynerve(神经）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics(声学语音学）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（传送）betweenmouthandear.2.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,(气流发生器官）theproducerofvoice（声音发生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（声音共振器官）3.Consonants(辅音）Placesofarticulation(发音部位）:bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4.Vowels(元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low),thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back),andthedegreeofliprounding(rounded,unrounded)III.Phonology（音韵学）1.phonemes(音素）：adistinctive(有区别的）soundinalanguage.2.Allophones(音位变体）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.3.Minimalpairs(最小对立体）：wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.4.Freevariation(自由变异）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment(环境）,theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.5.Complementarydistribution(补充分类）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment6.Suprasegmentalphonology(超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties(性质）o