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WhenIwaspreparingthepostgraduateentranceexaminationofNNU(NanjingNormalUniversity),someofthesefollowingconceptshadbeentested,butthere'snospecificorclearexplanationinthetextbookrequiredbytheuniversity.Asinpreparingthesecond-roundexaminationIreadtheminotherrelevantbooks,Iwrotedownhereforyourreference.Hopetheyareusefultosomeofyou.1.Acculturation(同化过程）isaprocessinwhichmembersofoneculturalgroupadoptthebeliefsandbehaviorsofanothergroup.2.Adjacencypair（相邻语对）;asequenceoftwoutterancesbydifferentspeakersinconversation.Thesecondisaresponsetothefirst,suchasquestion/answersequencesandgreeting/greetingexchange.3.affix:aboundmorphemethatisattachedtoastemandmodifiesitsmeaninginsomeway.4.agreement(concord)（一致）:agrammaticalphenomenoninwhichtheformofonewordinasentenceisdeterminedbytheformofanotherwordwhichisgrammaticallylinkedtoit.E.g.inthesentenceTheboygoestoschooleveryday.Thereisanagreementinnumberbetweenboyandgoes.5.articulators（发音器官):thetongue,lips,andvelum,whichchangetheshapeofthevocaltracttoproducedifferentspeechsounds.6.aspect(体）:thegrammaticalcategoryrepresentingdistinctioninthetemporalstructureofanevent.Englishhastwoaspectconstruction---theperfectandtheprogressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）;thepuffofairthatsometimesfollowsthepronounciationofastopconsonant.E.g./p/inthewordpit.8.consonant（辅音）;aspeechsoundproducedbypartialorcompleteclosureofpartofthevocaltract,thusobstructingtheairflowandcreatingaudiblefriction.Consonantsaredescribedintermsofvoicing,placeofarticulation,andmannerofarticulation.9.converstionalimplicature（会话含义）:meaningsthatareexplicableinthelightofconverationalmaxims.10.communicativecompetence（交际能力）;theabilitytouselanguageappropriatelyinsocialsituations.11.constituent（成分）:asyntacticunitthatfunctionsaspartofalargeunitwithinasentence;typicalconstituenttypesareverbphrase,nounphrase,prepositionalphraseandclause.12.case(格)：thegrammaticalcategoryininflectionallanguagesbywhichtheformofanounornounphrasevariesforgrammaticalorsemanticreasons.Englishhasonlyonecasedistinctioninnouns—thegenitivecase(所有格),butEnglishpronounshavethreeformsthatcorrespondtothreeofthesixcasesinLatin.13.clause（小句）:agrammaticalunitthatcontainsasubjectandapredicate.Itmaybeasentenceorpartofasentence.14.closedclass（封闭词类）:agroupofwordswhosemembershipissmallanddoesnotreadilyacceptnewmembers.15.coinage（创新词）:theconstructionandadditionofnewwords.16.distribution(分布）:thesetofpositionsinwhichagivenlinguisticelementorformcanappearinalanguage.17.duality（双重结构）:atypeofdouble-layerstructureinwhichasmallnumberofmeaninglessunitsarecombinedtoproducealargenumberofmeaningfulunits.18.entailment（包含）;therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofone(thesecond)isinferredfromthetruthoftheother.19.euphemism（委婉语）:awordorphrasethatreplacesataboowordorisusedtoavoidreferencetocertainactsorsubjects,e.g.powderroomfortoilet.20.gardenpathsentence（花园小径句）:asentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordoraphrasebutlaterdiscoversthattheassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobacktrackandreinterpretthesentence21.freevariation;(自由变异)arelationbetweentwospeechsoundssuchthateitheronecanoccurinacertainpositionandthesubstitutionofonefortheothernevermakesanydifferenceinthemeaningoftheword.Forinstance,theunexploded(失去爆破)stop/d/inthephraseGoodmorningisinfreevaritationwiththeexploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）:themorphologicalprocessbywhichaffixescombinewithwordsorstemstoindicatesuchgrammaticalcategoriesastenseorplurity.23.government（支配）:thegrammaticalphonomenoninwhichthepresenceofaparticularwordinasentencerequiresasecondwordwhichisgrammaticallinkedwithittoappearinaparticularform.E.g.aprepositionoraverbrequiresthatthepronounfollowingitbeintheobjectiveform,asinwithme,tohim.24.languageuniversal(语言共性):anypropertythatissharedbymost,ifnotall,humanlanugages.25.linguafranca:(通用语)Alanguagevarietyusedforcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplewodonototherwiseshareacommonlanguage.Forexample,Englishisthelinguafrancaoftheinternationalscientificcommunity.26.macrosociolinguistics;Thestudyoftheeffectoflanguageonsociety.27.microsociolinguistics:Thestudyoftheeffectofanyandallaspectsofsociety,includingculturalnorms,expetationsandcontexts,onthewaylanguageisused.Itisoftensimplycalledsociolinguistics.28.paradigmaticrelation:(纵组合关系)Thesubstitutionalrelationbetweenasetoflinguisticitems,thatis,linguisticforms(letters,wordsandphrases)canbesubstitutedforeachotherinthesamepositioninawordorsentence.E.g,b,p,s,fareinparadigmaticrelationinthewordsbit,pit,sit,fit,soareNature,Beauty,Love,Honestyinthesentences:Naturepurifiesthemind.Beautypurifiesthemind.Lovepurifiesthemind.Honestypurifiesthemind.29.syntagmaticrelation:(横组合关系)Therelationbetweenanylinguisticelementswhicharesimultaneouslypresentinastructure.E.g.inthewordbit,b,i,tareinsyntagmaticrelation,soarenature,purifies,the,mind,inthesentenceNaturepurifiesthemind.30.presupposition（预设）:implicitassumptionsabouttheworldacquiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e,g,“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppostionof“Takesomemoretea”.31.prototype(典型):Wha