ABriefHistoryofEnglishNounderstandingoftheEnglishlanguagecanbeverysatisfactorywithoutanotionofthehistoryofthelanguage.Butweshallhavetomakedowithjustanotion.ThehistoryofEnglishislongandcomplicated,andwecanonlyhitthehigl1spots.不了解英语的历史很难真正掌握这门语言,然而对此我们只能做到略有所知。因为英语的历史既漫长又复杂,我们只能抓住其发展过程中的几个关键时期。AtthetimeoftheRo1nanEmpire,thespeakersofwhatwastobecomeEnglishwerescatteredalongthenortherncoastofEurope.TheyspokeadialectofLowGerman.Moreexactly,theyspokeseveraldifferentdialects,sincetheywereseveraldifferenttribes.ThenamesgiventothetribeswhogottoEnglandareAngles,Saxons,andJutes,whoarereferredtocollectivelyasAnglo-Saxons4.在罗马帝国时期,散居在欧洲北部沿海的居民说一种西部德语的方言,这就是英语的前身。更确切地说,由于隶属于不同的部落,他们说的是几种不同的方言。这些后来迁移到英格兰的部落被称为盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人,现在则被统称为盎格鲁-撒克逊人。NotmuchisknownaboutthearrivaloftheAnglo-SaxonsinEngland.Wedoknow,however,thattheAngles,Saxons,andJuteswerealongtimesecuringthemselvesinEngland.FightingwentonforaslongasahundredyearsbeforetheCeltsinEnglandwereallkilled,drivenintoWales,orreducedtoslavery.By550orsotheAnglo-Saxonswerefirmlyestablished.EnglishwasinEngland.这些部落何时迁移到英格兰的,我们没有掌握确切信息。但是据我们所知,在很长一段时间内他们为自卫而战。与凯尔特人的战争持续了一百多年,直到英格兰境内的凯尔特人不是被杀,就是被迫流亡到威尔士或沦为奴隶。到了公元550年前后,盎格鲁-撒克逊人才定居下来。英语从此来到了英格兰。ItiscustomarytodividethehistoryoftheEnglish,languageintothreeperiods:OldEnglish,MiddleEnglish,ModernEnglish.OldEnglishrunsfromtheearliestrecords-i.e.seventhcentury-toabout1100;MiddleEnglishfrom1100to1450or1500;ModernEnglishfrom1500tothepresentday.我们习惯上把英语的发展分为三个时期:古英语,中世纪英语和现代英语。古英语时期从最早的历史记载即公元七世纪到1100年;中世纪英语时期从1100年到1450或1500年;现代英语时期从1500年至今。WhenEnglandcameintohistory,itwasdividedintoseveralmoreorlessautonomouskingdoms,someofwhichattimesexercisedacertainamountofcontrolovertheothers.InthesixthcenturythemostadvancedkingdomwasNorthurnbria.Twocenturieslater,Wessex,thecountryoftheWestSaxons,becametheleadingpower.ThemostfamouskingoftheWestSaxonswasAlfredtheGreat,whowasfamousnotonlyasamilitarymanandadm1n1stratorbutalsoasachampionoflearning.Hefoundedandsupportedschoolsar1dtranslatedorcausedtobetranslatedmanybooksfromLatinintoEnglish.根据最早的历史记载,当时的英格兰被分裂为几个享有一定自治权利的王国。在一定时期,其中的某一个王国对其他王国实行一定的统治。公元六世纪,最强大的王国是诺森伯里亚。两个世纪之后,由西撒克逊人建立的威塞克斯王国成为了领袖,其最富盛名的国王叫阿尔弗烈德大帝,他不仅是一个卓越的军事家和管理者,还是个大学问家。他出资建校,而且亲自动笔或请人将许多拉丁语的书籍翻译成英语。Inthemilitarysphere,Alfred'sgreataccomplishmentwashissuccessfuloppositiontotheVikinginvasions.ThelinguisticresultwasaconsiderableinjectionofNorseintotheEnglishlanguage.NorsewasatthistimenotsodifferentfromEnglishasNorwegianorDanishisnow.ProbablyspeakersofEnglishcouldunderstand,moreorless,thelanguageofthenewcomerswhohadmovedintoeasternEngland.Atanyrate,therewasconsiderableinterchangeandwordborrowing.ExamplesofNorsewordsintheEnglishlanguagearesky,give,law,egg,outlaw,leg,ugly,scant,sly,crawl,scowl,take,andthrust.Therearehundredsmore.WehaveevenborrowedsomepronounsfromNorse-they,their,andthem.在军事领域,阿尔弗烈德大帝最大的成就是成功抵抗了北欧海盗的入侵,结果造成了古挪威语大量进入英语。当时的挪威语与英语比较接近,就像今天的挪威语和丹麦语一样。以英语为母语的人或多或少能听懂来到英格兰东部定居的新邻居使用的语言。来自古挪威语的英语单词多达几百个,包括sky,give,law,egg,outlaw,leg,ugly,scant,sky,crawl,scowl,take,thrust。甚至有些代词也是来源于古挪威语的,如they,their和them。Ingrammar,OldEnglishwas,muchmorehighlyinflectedthanmodernEnglishis.Thatis,thereweremotecaseendingsfornouns,morepersonandnumberendingsforverbs,amorecomplicatedpronounsystem,variousendingsforadjectives,andsoon.OldEnglishnounshadfourcases-nominative,gen1tive,dative,accusative.Adjectiveshadfive–alltheseandaninstrumentalcasebesides.Present-dayEnglishhasonlytwocasesfornouns–commoncaseandpossessivecase.Adjectivesnowhavenocasesystematall.Ontheotherhand,wenowuseamorerigid,wordorderandmorestructurewordstoexpressrelationshipsthanOldEnglishdid.在语法上,古英语的曲折变化远远多于现代英语。古英语的名词有四种格变化,即主格,所有格,与格和宾语;形容词有五种格变化,除了以上四种还有工具格。而现代英语中,名词只有两种格变化,即普通格和所有格;形容词不再有格的变化。而另一方面,与古英语相比,现代英语使用更为严格的语序和丰富的结构词来表示句子成分之间的关系。InvocabularyoldEnglishisquitedifferentfromModernEnglish.MostoftheOldEnglishwordsarewhatwemaycallnativeEnglish:thatis,wordswhichhavenotbeenborrowedfromotherlanguagesbutwhichhavebeenapartofEnglisheversinceEnglishwasapartofIndo-European1.OldEnglishdidcertainlycontainborrowedwords.WehaveseenthatmanyborrowingswerecominginfromNorse.RatherlargenumbershadbeenborrowedfromLatin:cheese,butter,bishop,kettle,angel,candle,priest,martyr,radish,oyster,purple,school,spend,andsoon.Butthegreatn1ajorityofOldEnglishwordswerenativeEnglish.Nowonlyabout14percentarenative.在词汇上,古英语也与现代英语有诸多不同之处。古英语中的绝大多数单词如今被称为英语本土词,即自英语作为印欧语言的一部分起就存在的,而不是从其他语言引入的词汇。虽然古英语中也有一些外来词,除了古挪威语之外,还有不少词来自于拉丁语,如cheese,butter,bishop,kettle,angel,candle,priest,martyr,radish,oyster,purple,school,spend等。但是古英语的主体是英语本土词,而这些词只占现代英语词汇的百分之十四。Sometimebetweentheyears1000and1200variousimportantchangestookplaceinthestructureofEnglish,andOldEnglishbecameMiddleEnglish.ThepoliticaleventwhichfacilitatedthesechangeswastheNormanConquest.In1066,ledbyDukeWilliam,theNormanscrossedtheChannelandmadethemselvesmastersofEngland.Forthenextseveralhundredyears,EnglandwasruledbykingswhosefirstlanguagewasFrench.大约在公元1000年和1200年之间,英语的结构发生了重大变化。这些变化是由一个历史上称为诺曼底征服的政治事件造成的。1066年,威廉公爵带领诺曼人渡过英吉利海峡,占领了英格兰。在此后的几个世纪中,英格兰一直处于法兰西国王的统治下。GreatnumbersofN