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LinguisticsChapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.WhatislanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.A.LanguageisasystemAbasicobservationisthateachlanguagecontainstwosystems,asystemofsoundandasystemofmeaning.B.LanguageisarbitraryTherelationbetweenexpressionandcontentisnotnaturalbutconventional.Andthisconventionalrelationvariesfromlanguagetolanguage.e.g.Itiscalleda“老鼠”inChinese,whilea“rat”or“mouse”inEnglishC.LanguageisvocalTheprimarymediumoflanguageissoundratherthanword.writtenformscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms;wespeakmoreeveryday;welearntospeakfirst.D.Languageissymbolic象征性的Languageissymbolicinthesensethatallthesoundspeopleproduceandtheideas,concepts,objects,etc.thatthesesoundscanrefertoareboundedupbyconvention.惯例Linguisticunitsareconventionalsigns.E.Languageishuman-specificLanguageispossessedonlybyhumanbeings,othercommunicationsystemsaspossessedbyanimalsormanyotherlifeformsarenotlanguages,i.e.theydonotmanifestsuchfeaturesastheso-calleddesignfeaturesaspossessedbyhumanlanguage.F.LanguageisforcommunicationThemainandprimaryfunctionoflanguageistocommunicate.Peoplesaythingstoeachothertoexpresstheircommunicationalneeds,andlanguagefunctionstocommunicategeneralattitudestowardlifeandothers.2.Designfeaturesoflanguage(1)Arbitrariness:任意性thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsound.(2)Duality：双重性languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwolevelsofstructures,atthelowerlevelthereisthestructureofsounds;atthehigherlevelthereisthestructureofwords.(3)Creativity：创造性Languageiscreativeinthesensethatuserscanunderstandandcreatesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.(4)Displacement：移位性languagecanbeusedtocommunicateaboutthingsthatarenotpresentinourimmediatecommunicationalcontext.（5）Culturaltransmission:文化传播thedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Languageisnottransmittedbiologicallyfromgenerationtogeneration.（6）Interchangeability交换性anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.3.Functionsoflanguage（1）Informative信息功能Theuseoflanguagetorecordfacts,tostatewhatthingsarelike,andtoexchangeinformation.（2）Interpersonal人际功能Themostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,whichservestoestablishandmaintainpeople’sstatusinasociety.（3）Performative施为功能Languagecanbeusedtodothings,(AustinandSearl)tochangethesocialstatusortheimmediatestateofaffairsofpeople.（4）Emotive情感功能Languagecanbeusedtoexpresstheemotionalstateofthespeaker.（5）Phaticcommunion寒暄功能Ritualexchanges,exchangesthathavelittlemeaningbuthelptomaintainourrelationshipswithotherpeople.（6）Recreational娱乐功能theuseoflanguagetohavefun.（7）Metalingual元功能Languagecanbeusedtoexplainordescribeitselforotherlanguages.4.fourprinciplesforstudyinglinguistics:（1）Exhaustiveness穷尽性（2）Consistency一致性（3）Economy经济性（4）Objectiveness客观性5.Mainbranchesoflinguisticssound:phonetics语音学phonology音系学form:morphology形态学syntax句法学meaning：semantics语义学pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Appliedlinguistics应用语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学Computationallinguistics计算机语言学6.Importantdistinctions（1）Descriptive描述性Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse（2）prescriptive规定性Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguageModernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive（3）Synchronic共时性Itreferstothedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory（4）Diachronic共时性Itreferstothedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.（5）Langue言语Itreferstothespeaker’sunderstandingandknowledgeofthelanguagethathespeaks.（6）Parole语言Itreferstotheactualspeakingoflanguagebyanindividualspeaker.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby,paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract,paroleisconcreteLangueisrelativelystable,whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.（7）competence能力Itreferstoanidealspeaker’sknowledgeoftheunderlying潜在的systemofrulesinalanguage.（8）performance实行Itreferstotheactualuseofthelanguagebyaspeakerinarealcommunicationalcontext.Chapter2SpeechSounds1.Speechcommunicationinvolvesthreesteps:speechproduction产出speechtransmission传播speechperception感知(1)Segment语段alinguisticunitinanysequence顺序whichmaybeisolatedfromtherestofthesequencenodirectcorrespondencecanbeestablishedbetweenspellingandpronunciation.(2)Divergence分化theprocessoftwoormorelanguagesorlanguagevarietiesbecominglesslikeeachother.2.IPA:theInternationalPhoneticAssociation3.Consonants辅音28Thesoundsintheproduction生成ofwhichthereisanobstruction阻碍oftheair-stream气流atsomepointofthevocaltract声道Mannersofarticulation:发音方式(1)Stop爆破音：[p,b,k,g,t,d](2)Nasal鼻音:[m,n,ŋ](3)Fricative摩擦音：[f,v][θ,ð][s,z][ʃ,Ʒ][h](4)Approximant浊音：[r,j,w](5)Lateral无擦通音：[l](6)Affricate塞擦音：4.Placeofarticulation:发音部位(1)Bilabial双唇音：[p,b,m,w](2)Labiodental唇齿音：[f,v](3)Dental齿音：[θ,ð](4)Alveolar齿龈音：[t,d,n,s,z,l,r](5)Postalveolar齿槽音：[ʃ,Ʒ](6)Retroflex卷舌音：[r](7)Palatal上颚音:[j](8)Velar:软腭音：[k,g,ŋ](9)Uvular小舌音(10)pharyngeal喉音(11)glottal声门音Consonantscanbedescribedbythefollowingthreecriteria:voicing(whetheraconsonantisvoicelessor