1CHAPTER10THEMARGINALPROPENSITYTOCONSUMEANDTHEMULTIPLIER第十章边际消费倾向和乘数WEestablishedinChapter8thatemploymentcanonlyincreaseparipassuwithinvestment.Wecannowcarrythislineofthoughtastagefurther.ForingivencircumstancesadefiniteratiotobecalledtheMultiplier,canbeestablishedbetweenincomeandinvestmentand,subjecttocertainsimplifications,betweenthetotalemploymentandtheemploymentdirectlyemployedoninvestment(whichweshallcalltheprimaryemployment).Thisfurtherstepisanintegralpartofourtheoryofemployment,sinceitestablishesapreciserelationship,giventhepropensitytoconsume,betweenaggregateemploymentandincomeandtherateofinvestment.TheconceptionofthemultiplierwasfirstintroducedintoeconomictheorybyMr.R.F.KahninhisarticleonTheRelationofHomeInvestmenttoUnemployment(EconomicJournal,June1931).Hisargumentinthisarticledependedonthefundamentalnotionthatifthepropensitytoconsumeinvarioushypotheticalcircumstancesis(togetherwithcertainotherconditions)takenasgivenandweconceivethemonetaryorotherpublicauthoritytotakestepstostimulateortoretardinvestment,thechangeintheamountofemploymentwillbeafunctionofthenetchangeintheamountofinvestment;anditaimedatlayingdowngeneralprinciplesbywhichtoestimatetheactualquantitativerelationshipbetweenanincrementofnetinvestmentandtheincrementofaggregateemploymentwhichwillbeassociatedwithit.Beforecomingtothemultiplier,however,itwillbeconvenienttointroducetheconceptionofthemarginalpropensitytoconsume.在第八章,我们确立了一点,就业量只能随投资的增加而增加,现在我们可以沿着这个思路再前进一步。在既定的条件下,可以在收入和投资之间建立一个确定的比例,并将其称之为乘数。在某种简化条件下,又可以在总就业量和直接被用于投资的就业量(我们将其成为初期就业量)之间建立一个也可称之为乘数的确定的比例。这个进一步的步骤是我们整个就业理论中一个不可或缺的部分,因为它可以在给定的消费倾向下,在总就业量、总收入量和总投资量之间建立起一个精确的关系。乘数这个概念是由R•F•卡恩先生在他的论文《国内投资与失业的关系》(载《经济学杂志》,1931年6月号)中首次引入经济理论的。在2该文中,他的论点来自这样一个基本思想,即:如果把各种假设情况下的(以及其它一些条件)消费倾向作为一个既定量,如果国家的货币管理当局或其它公共当局采取措施刺激或阻挠投资,则就业量的变化就是投资量净变化的函数。该文的目的在于建立一个一般性原理,用以估计净投资的增量和由此而导致的总就业量的增量之间的数量关系。然而,在论述乘数以前,有必要介绍边际消费倾向这个概念。IThefluctuationsinrealincomeunderconsiderationinthisbookarethosewhichresultfromapplyingdifferentquantitiesofemployment(i.e.oflabour-units)toagivencapitalequipment,sothatrealincomeincreasesanddecreaseswiththenumberoflabour-unitsemployed.If,asweassumeingeneral,thereisadecreasingreturnatthemarginasthenumberoflabour-unitsemployedonthegivencapitalequipmentisincreased,incomemeasuredintermsofwage-unitswillincreasemorethaninproportiontotheamountofemployment,which,inturn,willincreasemorethaninproportiontotheamountofrealincomemeasured(ifthatispossible)intermsofproduct.Realincomemeasuredintermsofproductandincomemeasuredintermsofwage-unitswill,however,increaseanddecreasetogether(intheshortperiodwhencapitalequipmentisvirtuallyunchanged).Since,therefore,realincomeintermsofproduct,maybeincapableofprecisenumericalmeasurement,itisoftenconvenienttoregardincomeintermsofwage-units(Yw)asanadequateworkingindexofchangesinrealincome.Incertaincontextswemustnotoverlookthefactthat,ingeneral,Ywincreasesanddecreasesinagreaterproportionthanrealincome;butinothercontextsthefactthattheyalwaysincreaseanddecreasetogetherrendersthemvirtuallyinterchangeable.本书所考察的实际收入的波动,是把不同的就业量(也即不同数量的劳工单位)应用于一个给定资本设备,从而实际工资随着被使用的劳工单位数量的增减而增减。像我们通常所假定的那样,当用于给定资本设备的劳工单位的数量增加时,会导致报酬递减,则用工资单位计量的收入增加的比例会大于就业量增加的比例,而就业量增加的比例又会大于用产品计量的(如果可能的话)实际收入增加的比例。然而,用产品计量的实际收入和用工资单位计量的收入会一起增减(在短期内,资本设备几乎没有变化)。所以,由于用产品计量的实际收入无法用精确的数量计量,因此,用工资单位计量的收入(Yw)往往被当作实际收入3变动的实用的指标。在某些情形,我们一定不要忽视这个事实,即:一般来说,Yw的增减比例大于收入的增减比例。但是,在另外一些情形,它们总是同时增加和减少,因而它们成为几乎可以相互替代的东西。Ournormalpsychologicallawthat,whentherealincomeofthecommunityincreasesordecreases,itsconsumptionwillincreaseordecreasebutnotsofast,can,therefore,betranslated--not,indeed,withabsoluteaccuracybutsubjecttoqualificationswhichareobviousandcaneasilybestatedinaformallycompletefashion--intothepropositionsthatΔCwandΔYwhavethesamesign,butΔYwΔCw,whereCwistheconsumptionintermsofwage-units.Thisismerelyarepetitionofthepropositionalreadyestablishedonp.29above.LetusdefinethendCw/dYwasthemarginalpropensitytoconsume.我们通常的心理规律是:当社会的实际收入增加或者减少时,社会的消费也将增加或减少,但后者的增减或减少不会像前者那么快。所以,这条心理规律能被改写成——并非绝对准确的,而是受限制条件的约束;这些限制条件是显而易见的,并且很容易地以完整的形式加以说明——这样一个命题,即:ΔCw和ΔYw的符号相同,但ΔYwΔCw。其中,Cw是用工资单位计量的消费量。这不过是重复上文第29页已经确立的命题。我们将dCw/dYw称之为边际消费倾向。Thisquantityisofconsiderableimportance,becauseittellsushowthenextincrementofoutputwillhavetobedividedbetweenconsumptionandinvestment.ForΔYw=ΔCw+ΔIw,whereΔCwandΔIwaretheincrementsofconsumptionandinvestment;sothatwecanwriteΔYw=kΔIw,whereI-I/kisequaltothemarginalpropensitytoconsume.这个变量是相当重要的,因为它可以告诉我们,下一期产量的增量将如何在消费和投资之间进行分割。由于ΔYw=ΔCw+ΔIw,这里ΔCw和ΔIw分别为消费和投资的增量,所以我们可以得到ΔYw=kΔIw,在这里I-1/k等于边际消费倾向。Letuscallktheinvestmentmultiplier.Ittellsusthat,whenthereisanincrementofaggregateinvestment,incomewillincreasebyanamountwhichisktimestheincrementofinvestment.我们称k为投资乘数。它告诉我们:当总投资增加时,收入的增加量等于k乘以投资的增加量。4IIMr.Kahn'smultiplierisalittledifferentfromthis,beingwhatwemaycalltheemploymentmultiplierdesignatedbyk',sinceitmeasurestheratiooftheincrementoftotalemploymentwhichisassociatedwithagivenincrementofprimaryemploymentintheinvestmentindustries.Thatistosay,iftheincrementofinvestmentΔIwleadstoanincrementofprimar