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1Lecture4.AncientGreekCulture4.1.IntroductiontoGreekCultureAncientGreekGreeceisthetermusedtodescribetheGreekspeakingworldinancienttimes.ItrefersnotonlytotheterritoryofthepresentGreekstate,butalsotothoseareasettledbyGreeks:Cyprus,theAegeancoastofTurkey(thenknownasIonia爱奥尼亚，古希腊殖民地),SicilyandsouthernItaly(knownasGreatGreece),andthescatteredGreeksettlementsonthecoastsofwhatarenowAlbania,Bulgaria,Egypt,France,Libya,Romania,Spain,andUkraine.Traditionally,theAncientGreekperiodwastakentobeginwiththedateofthefirstOlympicGamesin776B.C.,butmosthistoriansnowextendthetermbacktoabout1000B.C.ThetraditionaldatefortheendofAncientGreekperiodisthedeathofAlexandertheGreatin332B.C..ThefollowingperiodisclassifiedHellenistic,whichlasteduntiltheannexationoftheGreekpeninsulaandislandsbyRomein146B.C.ThepeoplesofGreece,undertheinfluenceofthedivisivegeographyandthegreatvarietyoftribes,developedthecity-states____smallsettlementsthatgrewintominorkingdoms.Thecitiesdevelopedseparatelyandindependently.However,therewasageneralpatternofdevelopment,whichvariedsomewhatineachparticularinstance.Monarchiesyieldedtoaristocracies,whichwereinturnreplacedbytyrannies.OntheGreekmainlandthetyranniessoonyieldedto2oligarchiesortodemocraciestemperedbylimitedcitizenshipandbyslaveholding;itwasinGreecethattheideasofpoliticaldemocracycameintobeing.SolonestablishedademocracyinAthens.MilitaristicSpartahaduniqueconstitutionalandsocialdevelopment.Thewarringcity-stateshadasenseofunity;alltheircitizensconsideredthemselvesHellenes.AncientGreeceisconsideredbymosthistorianstobethefoundationalcultureofWesterncivilization.GreekculturewasapowerfulinfluenceintheRomanEmpire,whichcarriedaversionofittomanypartsofEurope.AncientGreekcivilizationhasbeenimmenselyinfluentialonthelanguage,politics,educationalsystem,philosophy,artandarchitectureofthemodernworld,particularlyduringtheRenaissanceinWesternEuropeandagainduringvariousneo-classicalrevivalsin18thand19thcenturyEuropeandAmerica.Athens,inparticular,grewdramatically.Drama,poetry,sculpture,architecture,andphilosophyflourished,andtherewasavigorousintellectuallife.SomeofthegreatestnamesofWesternculturalandintellectualhistorygotheardinAthensduringthisperiod:thedramatistsAeschylus(埃斯库勒斯),Aristophanes（阿里斯多芬尼斯）,Euripides（欧里庇得斯）,andSophocles（索福克勒斯）,thephilosophersAristotle,Socrates,thehistoriansHerodotus（希罗多德）,Thucydides（修昔底德）,andXenophon,thepoetSimonides（西蒙尼戴斯）andthesculptorPheidias（菲迪亚斯）.Thecitybecame,inPericles’swords,“theschoolof3Hellas.（希腊文‘Greece’）”4.2.Socrates(469-399B.C.)AsoneofthemostinfluentialphilosophersofGreekorigin,SocratesisregardedasanembodimentoftheshiningmoralidealsofAtheniancivilization.AndthecondemnationofSocratesisgenerallyconsideredasasymbolofthefailureofAtheniandemocracy.TheApology(申辩篇)writtenbyPlatoasaccountofSocrates’defenseinthecourtgivesacluetoSocrates’understandingoffreedomandvirtueinademocraticstate.4.2.1.Socrates’PhilosophyBeforeSocrates,thephilosophymainlydweltonthecosmologicalorigins,i.e.thecompositionoftheuniverse,whichiscalledbythelatergenerations“Naturalphilosophy（自然哲学）”.Socrates,however,heldthatisofnouseresearchingonthisareatosavethecountry.Instead,heturnedhisphilosophicalresearchintereststohumankinditself,i.e.humanethics:whatiscalledjustice,non-justice,bravery,cowardice,integrity,hypocrisy,wisdom,andhowknowledgederivesfrom,whatiscalledacountry?Whatkindofpeoplecanbeempoweredtogovernthecountry?Howtodeveloppoliticians,etc.Histheoryappearstobeofcertainmysticcolor.HebelievedthateverythingeitherinheavenoronearthwasarrangedbyGod,includingitsbirth,developmentordestruction.AssuchheopposedresearchonNature,whichwastheblasphemytoGod.44.2.2.Socrates’thoughts⑴.Soul.SinceSocratesturnedhisresearchfromthenaturalphilosophytotheresearchofman,called“theTurnoftheSoul”(心灵的转向)i.e.‘PullbackfromtheHeaventotheearthlyworld’.Socrateswouldliketopursueunvarying,absolute,everlastingtruths,andseparatemanfromnatureasanindependententity.Bymeansofretrospectiontooneself.Hiswell-knownsayingis“Toknowyourself.”⑵.Spirit.BeforeSocrates,thereappearedsomevagueideasabouttherelationshipbetweenspiritandmaterial.IntheeyesofSocratesthingscreatedandperishedisnothingbutakindofaggregationanddispersion(聚合与分散)。Thereforeheputspiritandmaterialindistinctiveopposition,thusbecamethefounderofidealisticphilosophyinthehistoryofWesternphilosophy.⑶.Truths.Opposingtheoryofrelativityintruth,SocratesbelievedthattherewasonlyOneTruthwhichwasabsolute,unvarying.Healsoheldthatwhatwetrytopursueisthe“BeautyPerSe”(美自身).“TheJusticePerSe（正义自身）”，whichistheuniversalmeaningandrealknowledgeofbeautyandjustice.”Hecalledthe“IdeaofBeauty,“IdeaofJustice”(“美的理念”、“正义的理念”)。SocratesfurtherheldthattheultimatereasoncauseisGoodness，5whichispurposeofthings,theteleonomy(目的性)，whichpavedthewayofidealisticphilosophy。⑷.Dialectics.Socratesarguedthateverykindofknowledgecomesfrompuzzles.Themorepuzzlesonehasthemoreprogresshemakes.Headmitsthathasnoknowledgeofhisown,butwhatheindoctrinatedtootherpeopleiswhattheyhavealready“conceived”intheirhearts(在他们心上已经怀上了“胎”)withoutbeingawareofthemselves.Soheservedas