胡壮麟语言学课件Chapter-4-gram

1ChapterFourFromWordtoText2Theuseoflanguage,likegames,hasitsownrules.Toplaythegameswell,youshouldknowtherules.Words,wordgroupsandphrases,andclausescannotoccuratrandom,theyhavetofollowcertainrulesofordering.SYNTAXisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.3Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:positionalrelationsrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurrence1.Syntacticrelations41.1PositionalRelationForlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject5Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,6Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher7PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSYNTAGMATICRELATIONSobservedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHORIZONTALRELATIONSorsimplyCHAINRELATIONS.Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandarealclassifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.81.2RelationofSubstitutabilityTheRELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The______smiles.manboygirl9Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.10ThisiswhatSaussurecalledASSOCIATIVErelations,orinHjemslev'sterm,PARADIGMATICrelations.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVERTICALrelationsorCHOICErelations.111.3RelationofCo-occurrenceItmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.12Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.132.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents2.1GrammaticalConstructionGRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTIONorCONSTRUCTcanbeusedtorefertoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.14Onthelevelofsyntax,wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalanditsinternalproperties.Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole,thatistosay,anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome.Forinstance,thedifferenttermssuchasclausaltype,phrasaltypeareassignedtothepropertiesoftheconstructionsrespectively.15Subject+Verb+Object(clausaltype)Mary(subject)ate(verb)anapple(object).Determiner+Noun(phrasaltype)this(determiner)edition(noun)Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction’s“make-up”,withthetermssuchas“subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun”.16Inthecontextofdiscourse/textanalysis,constructionreferstoatokenofaconstructionaltype.ThesentenceThegirlisgigglingisrecognisedas“Subject+Predicate”type,butitisrealizedinastringThe+girl+is+giggling.Itistheconstructioninthissensethatcanbeanalysedintoconstituents.172.2ImmediateConstituentsCONSTITUENTisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:forexample,inthesentenceThegirlatetheapple,S(A),thegirl(B),atetheapple(C),eachpartisaconstituent.18Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits.Iftwoconstituents,inthecaseoftheexampleabove,B(thegirl)andC(atetheapple),arejoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA(“S”,hereasentence),thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA.19A(Sentence)BCThegirlatetheapple20ThistreecontainsthreeNodes.Thetop-mostnode,A,isthemotherofthetwolowernodes,BandC.BandCaredaughtersofthesamemother,andsowerefertothemassisternodes.ThesimpletreeintheaboverepresentsaconstituentofcategoryAwhichiscomposedoftwoparts,oneofcategoryBandtheotherofcategoryC,occurringinthatorder.21TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis.Theimmediateconstituentsthemselvescanbeconstructionsofspecifictypes,forinstance,thenominalphrase“Thegirl”canbefurtheranalysedinto“The(Determiner)+girl(Noun)”.Thus,“Thegirl”istheconstructionofanominalphrase,whereas“The”and“girl”areitsconstituents.22Whenatreediagramisusedtorepresenttheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit(e.g.aphraseorsentence),syntacticcategoriesareusedtolabelthenodes;themostcommonofthesearelistedinthefollowing:23Word-levelPhrasalN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP