曼昆经济学原理(微观经济学)笔记

曼昆《经济学原理——微观经济学》笔记目录一、经济学的十大原理：····································································································································1二、循环流量图（资本循环、要素循环）······································································································1三、实证分析与规范分析····································································································································1四、绝对优势与比较优势····································································································································1五、几种价格弹性与商品关系···························································································································2六、需求价格弹性················································································································································2七、政府限价对市场的影响·······························································································································3八、税收归宿（TAXINCIDENCE）·····················································································································3九、曼昆的市场有效（EFFICIENT）·················································································································3十、税收的代价····················································································································································4十一、国际贸易与关税········································································································································4十二、公共部门——外部性·······························································································································5十三、公共物品和公有资源·······························································································································7十四、市场结构····················································································································································7十五、寡头与古诺模型········································································································································8十六、生产要素市场（劳动力市场）···············································································································8十七、减少贫困的政策········································································································································8十八、无差异曲线与收入替代效应（斯勒茨基方程）·················································································9十九、博弈论·······················································································································································10二十、微观经济学前沿······································································································································111一、经济学的十大原理：①人们面临权衡的取舍。②某种东西的成本是为了取得它所放弃的东西。（也就是机会成本）③理性人考虑边际量。（理性人通过比较边际收益与边际成本来做出选择）④人们会对激励做出反应。⑤贸易能使每个人都获得好处。⑥市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法。⑦政府有时可以改善市场结果。（市场失灵时存在外部性或市场力量）⑧一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力。⑨当政府发行了过多的货币时，物价上升。⑩社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍。二、循环流量图（资本循环、要素循环）三、实证分析与规范分析实证分析是描述性的，企图描述世界是什么的观点。规范分析是命令性的，企业描述世界应该是什么。例子：（实证分析）最低工资法引起了失业。（规范分析）政府应提高最低工资。四、绝对优势与比较优势案例：假设中国工人每小时能生产50个烧饼或4件毛衣；英国工人每小时能生产40个烧饼或2件毛衣。烧饼毛衣名称产量机会成本产量机会成本中国500.08412.5英国400.05220企业家庭产品市场要素市场支出收益收入工资、租金、利润购买出售购买出售2数量价格●有弹性无弹性单位弹性MR=0从上图可以看出，中国在生产烧饼和毛衣上都有绝对优势。中国在生产毛衣的机会成本小于英国，在生产毛衣上有比较优势；英国在生产烧饼的机会成本小于中国，在生产烧饼上有比较优势。五、几种价格弹性与商品关系1、【收入与需求数量的关系】正常物品：收入增加，需求数量增加。低档物品：收入减少，需求数量增加。2、【价格与需求数量的关系】普通商品：价格下降，需求数量增加。吉芬物品：价格上涨，需求数量增加。3、【价格与需求数量的关系】（弹性=物品1需求数量的变化百分比/物品2的价格变化百分比）替代品：弹性为正互补品：弹性为负六、需求价格弹性21212121Q-Q)/[(Q+Q)/2]P-P)/[(P+P)/2]=（需求价格弹性（中点法）（边际收益1()[1]MRpqe=-奢侈品1me，正常品01me，低档品0me。总收益在弹性等于1的地方最大。缺乏弹性时，价格与总收益成正比；富有弹性时，价格与总收益呈反比。3七、政府限价对市场的影响图1图2图1的情况是：政府限制价格高于市场均衡价格。在这种情况下，企业愿意多供给，但消费者会少购买，结果是供过于求，引起生产过剩。图2的情况是：政府限制价格低于市场均衡价格。在这种情况下，企业将少供给，但消费者愿意多购买，结果是供不应求，引起物品短缺。八、税收归宿（taxincidence）图1：向买者征税图2：向卖者征税图1是向买者征税，导致需求曲线向左移。买者支付的价格为P1，卖者得到的价格为P3。P1-P3为税收，买者支付的税收为P1-P2，卖者支付的税收为P2-P3。图2是向卖者征税，导致供给曲线向左移。买者支付的价格为P1，卖者得到的价格为P3。P1-P3为税收，买者支付的税收为P1-P2，卖者支付的税收为P2-P3。结论：对买者与卖者征税其结果相同，唯一的区别是谁来把钱交给政府。税收负担更多的落在缺乏弹性的市场一方身上。（垂直为无弹性）九、曼昆的市场有效（efficient）QPS供给D需求QPS供给D需求QPS供给D需求P1P2P3QPS供给D需求P1P2P34资源配置使社会所有成员得到的总剩余最大化的性质，即消费者剩余+生产者剩余+政府税收之和最大。十、税收的代价1、税收对福利的影响无税收时有税收时变动消费者剩余CSA+B+CA-(B+C)生产者剩余PSD+E+FF-(D+E)税收收入0B+D+(B+D)总剩余totalsurplusA+B+C+D+E+FA+B+D+F-(C+E)2、税收损失曲线和拉弗曲线图1：税收损失曲线图2：拉弗曲线税收损失曲线：税收规模增大，无谓损失迅速增加。拉弗曲线：税收收入随着税收规模的增加是先增大后减小。十一、国际贸易与关税1、国际贸易的两种情况QPS供给D需求ABCDEF税收规模Deadweightloss税收规模Taxincome5图1：世界价格高于均衡价格贸易前贸易后变动消费者剩余CSA+BA-B生产者剩余PSCB+C+D+(B+D)totalsurplusA+B+CA+B+C+D+D图2：世界价格低于均衡价格贸易前贸易后变动消费者剩余CSAA+B+D+(B+D)生产者剩余PSB+CC-BtotalsurplusA+B+CA+B+C+D+D2、关税关税前关税后变动消费者剩余CSA+B+C+D+E+FA+B-(C+D+E+F)生产者剩余PSGC+G+C关税收入0E+EtotalsurplusA+B+C+D+E+F+GA+B+C+D-(D+F)国际贸易增加了可供消费者消费的物品多样性，使企业可以利用规模经济，使市场更具有竞争性，并有助于技术扩散。各种反对贸易的观点：工作岗位论、国家安全论、幼稚产业论、不公平竞争论、作为讨价还价筹码的保护论。十二、公共部门——外部性1、外部性（externality）：当一个人从事一种影响旁观者福利，而对这种影响既不付报酬又得不到报酬时，就产生了外部性。2、负的外部性及其措施举例：生产曲线造成污染，造成负的外部性，使社会成本增加，导致供给曲线左移。从图上可以看出，Q市场是最有效