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Chapter9Psycholinguistics心理语言学1.Thebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage语言的生理基础a)ThecaseofPhineasGage盖奇案例OneafternooninSeptember1848,atragedyhappedtoGage.AhugemetalrodhadgonethroughthefrontpartofGage’sbrain,buthislanguageabilitieswereunaffected.Thepointofthisamazingcaseisthat,ifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefront.1848年9月的一个下午，有一名叫菲尼亚斯.盖奇的美国人身上发生了一场悲剧。一根大铁杆穿过了盖奇的大脑的前部，但他的语言能力却未受影响。这一令人惊异的案例的意义在于，如果我们的语言能力位于大脑中，很显然不在其头部。b)Thehumanbrain人的大脑Thehumanbrainisthemostcomplicatedorganofthebody.Lyingundertheskull,thehumanbraincontainsanaverageoftenbillionnervecellscalledneurons.人的大脑是人体最复杂的器官，它位于头盖骨下，平均包含有一百亿个神经细胞，即神经元。Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralcortex.Thecortexisthedecision-makingorganofthebody,receivingmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandinitiatingallvoluntaryaction.Manyofthecognitiveabilitiesthatdistinguishhumansfromothermammals,suchassophisticatedreasoning,linguisticskills,andmusicalability,arebelievedtoresideinthecortex.大脑最主要的部分是它的外表面，这一外表面称为大脑皮层。这一皮层是人体中做出各种决定的器官，它从各感受器官接受信息，并启动所有有意的动作。使人区别于其它哺乳动物的是人有很多认知能力，如复杂的推理、语言技巧和音乐才能，据认为都归因于这一皮层。Thebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledhemispheres,oneontherightandoneontheleft.Thesehemispheresareconnectedliketwinsrightdownthemiddlebyanumberofinterconnectingnervepathways.大脑可分为大致对称的两半，称为半球，一个在左边，一个在右边。这两个半球由一些起连接作用的神经路径从正中间像双胞胎一样连接在一起。Ingeneral,therighthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,theleftsideofthebody,whereasthelefthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,therightsideofthebody.总的来说，右半球控制左侧身体的有意动作，并对左侧身体发出的信号做出反应。而左半球反过来。c)Brainlateralization大脑的侧化Thelefthemispherehasprimaryresponsibilityforlanguage,whiletherighthemispherecontrolsandspatialskillsaswellastheperceptionofnonlinguisticsoundsandmusicalmelodies.Thelocalizationofthecognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledlateralization.人的大脑左半球主要负责语言，而右半球不仅支配着对非语言声音及音乐旋律的感知，而且支配着视觉和空间技能。认知功能和感知功能位于大脑的某一半球上被称为侧化。Becauseeachcerebralhemispherehasuniquefunctionalsuperiority,itismoreaccuratetoconceiveofthehemispheresascomplementarilyspecialized.由于大脑的每个半球都有独特的功能优势，因而更准确地说，两个半球的专长是互利的。Theprocessoflateralizationisbelievedtobematurational.Thatis,brainlateralizationisgeneticallyprogrammed,buttakestimetodevelop.侧化的过程被认为是一种发育成长的过程。也就是说，大脑侧化在基因中已安排好，但需要时间逐渐实现侧化。2.Linguisticlateralization语言侧化a)Lefthemisphericdominanceforlanguage左半球的语言优势Linguisticlateralizationintermsoflefthemisphericdominanceforlanguageisfoundtoexistinanoverwhelmingmajorityofhumanbeings.大脑侧化的一个显著特征是左半球语言侧化，即大脑左半球有着语言上的优势。大部分人的大脑左半球具有语言信息处理功能。Althoughbothrightandlefthemispheresarelateralizedcomplementarilyinmanyaspectsofhumancognitiveandperceptualactivities,languagefunctionsarebelievedtobelateralizedprimarilyinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.Researchhasshownthatdifferentaspectsoflanguageprocessingappeartobemorecharacteristicofthelefthemispherethantheother.虽然在人类认知和感知活动的很多方面，左右半球的侧化互相补充，人们还是认为，语言功能主要侧化于大脑的左半球。研究表明，语言信息处理的多个方面似乎更多的是左半球的特性，而不是右半球的特性。b)Dichoticlisteningresearch两耳分听实验Evidenceinsupportingoflateralizationforlanguageinthelefthemispherecomesfromresearchesindichoticlisteningtasks.Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Abasicassumption,thus,wouldbethatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Bymeansofdichoticlisteningtask,wecananalyzethecharacteristicsofincomingstimuliprocessedbytheindividualhemisphere.证明左半球的语言侧化的证据来自于两耳分听研究。两耳分听研究利用了已得到公认的事实：人体右半身所体验到的任何东西都是由左半球处理的，反之亦然。这样就有了下面的基本假设：进入右耳的信号将进入左半球，而进入左耳的信号将进入右半球。通过两耳分听研究，我们可以分析各个半球所处理的外部刺激的特点。Researchshowsthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocessingallsounds,butonlyforthosethatarelinguisticinnature,thusprovidingevidenceinsupportoftheviewthattheleftsideofthebrainisspecializedforlanguageandthatitiswherelanguagecentersreside.研究表明，左脑并不是在处理所有进入的声音上都有优势，而只是在处理本质上是语言的声音时具有优势，这也为以下观点提供了证据：大脑左侧专司语言，语言中枢就位于这一部分。3.Thelanguagecenters语言中枢a)Broca’sarea布罗卡区In1861,aFrenchmannamedPaulBrocafoundthedamagetoaspecificareaofthebrainresultsinspeechproductiondeficit.ThisareawasnowknownasBroca’sarea.LanguagedisorderresultingfromadamagetoBroca’sareainthebrainrevealsword-findingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.1861年，一个叫布罗卡的法国人发现大脑内某一区域受伤会导致语言表达机能的丧失。现在该区域就叫做布罗卡区。大脑中布罗卡区受伤引起语言混乱表明病人找寻词语困难及出现了句法方面的问题。布罗卡区是大脑皮层的一个重要语言区域，有着控制语言表达的机能。b)Wernicke’sarea韦尼克区In1874,ayoungGermanCarlWernickefoundanotherdifferentareaofthelefthemispherenowknownasWernicke’sarea.ThedamagetoWernick’sareawillresultinspeechcomprehensiondeficit.1874年，一个叫韦尼克的年轻德国人发现了左半球还有另一个重要的语言区域，有着控制语言理解的技能。现在该区域就叫做韦尼克区。大脑中韦尼克区受伤会产生严重的理解力缺失。c)Theangulargyrus角形脑回AngulargyrusliesbehindWernicke’sarea.Itisthelanguagecenterresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversa.Thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,andforthecomprehensionofwrittenlanguage,allofwhichrequireco