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国际多式联运4国际多式联运与集装箱运输-1-4.国际多式联运与集装箱运输4.1TheNatureofIntermodalismCompetitionbetweenthemodeshastendedtoproduceatransportsystemthatissegmentedandun-integrated.Eachmodehassoughttoexploititsownadvantagesintermsofcost,service,reliabilityandsafety.Carrierstrytoretainbusinessbymaximizingtheline-haulundertheircontrol.Allthemodessawtheothermodesascompetitors,andwereviewedwithsuspicionandmistrust.Thelackofintegrationbetweenthemodeswasalsoaccentuatedbypublicpolicythathasfrequentlybarredcompaniesfromowningfirmsinothermodes(asintheUnitedStatesbeforederegulation),orhasplacedamodeunderdirectstatemonopolycontrol(asinEurope).Modalismwasalsofavoredbecauseofthedifficultiesoftransferringgoodsfromonemodetoanother,therebyincurringadditionalterminalcostsanddelays.Intermodalismoriginatedinmaritimetransportation,withthedevelopmentofthecontainerinthelate1960'sandhassincespreadtointegrateothermodes.Itisnotsurprisingthatthemaritimesectorshouldhavebeenthefirstmodetopursuecontainerization.Itwasthemodemostconstrainedbythetimetakentoloadandunloadthevessels.Aconventionalbreakbulkcargoshipcouldspendasmuchtimeinaportasitdidatsea.Containerizationpermitsthemechanizedhandlingofcargoesofdiversetypesanddimensionsthatareplacedintoboxesofstandardsizes.Inthiswaygoodsthatmighthavetakendaystobeloadedorunloadedfromashipcannowbehandledinamatterofminutes.FirstContainership,Ideal-X,1956OnApril26th1956,theIdeal-XleftthePortofNewark,NewJerseytothePortHouston,Texas,whichitcalled5dayslater.Itcarried5835-feet(8feetwideby8feethigh)containers,alongwitharegularloadof15,000tonsofbulkpetroleum.The35feetunitrepresentedatthattimethestandardtrucksizeintheUnitedStates.ThisfirstcontainershipwasconvertedundertheinitiativeofMalcomMcLean(1914-2001),atruckingmagnatewhosawthetremendouspotentialofcontainerization,particularlyintermsofloadingandunloadingcosts.McLeancalculatedthatin1956loadingamedium-sizedshiptheconventionalwaywascosting$5.83a国际多式联运4国际多式联运与集装箱运输-2-ton.Comparatively,loadingtheIdeal-Xwascostinglessthan$0.16aton.Theeconomicadvantagesofsuchamodeoftransportationthusbecamecleartotheshippingindustry.In1960,McLeanfoundedSeaLand,amajorcontainershippingline,whichwaspurchasedin1999byMaersk,theworld'slargestcontainershippingcompany.TheIdealXcarriedcontainersuntil1965,whenitwasscrapped.Sincethe1960smajoreffortshavebeenmadetointegrateseparatetransportsystemsthroughintermodalism,whichtookplaceisseveralstages.Whatinitiallybeganasimprovingtheproductivityofshippingevolvedintoanintegratedsupplychainmanagementsystemacrossmodes.Thisinvolvestheuseofatleasttwodifferentmodesinatripfromorigintodestinationthroughanintermodaltransportchain.Intermodalityenhancestheeconomicperformanceofatransportchainbyusingmodesinthemostproductivemanner.Thus,theline-hauleconomiesofrailmaybeexploitedforlongdistances,withtheefficienciesoftrucksprovidingflexiblelocalpickupanddelivery.Thekeyisthattheentiretripisseenasawhole,ratherthanasaseriesoflegs,eachmarkedbyanindividualoperationwithseparatesetsofdocumentationandrates.4.1.1IntegratedTransportSystems:FromFragmentationtoCoordinationFactorCauseConsequenceTechnologyContainerization&ITModalandintermodalinnovations;TrackingshipmentsandmanagingfleetsCapitalinvestmentsReturnsoninvestmentsHighscostsandlongamortization;ImproveutilizationtolessencapitalcostsAlliancesandM&ADeregulationEasiercontractualagreements;jointownershipCommoditychainsGlobalizationCoordinationoftransportationandproduction(integrateddemand)NetworksConsolidationandinterconnectionMultiplyingeffectThenotionofintegratedtransportsystemsreceivedalotofattention,particularlywithimprovementsinthecapacity,efficiencyandreliabilityoffreighttransport国际多式联运4国际多式联运与集装箱运输-3-systems.Theconventionalfragmentedandsub-optimalfreighttransportsystemshavesubstantiallybeenimproved.Aprocessofcoordinationoffreighttransportistakingplace.Severalfactorscanbepondered:(1)TechnologyTechnologyhasbeenaprimedrivingforce.Containerizationiswithoutanydoubtthemostsignificanttechnologicalfactorbehindamoreefficientcoordinationoftransportmodes.Innovationsincludemodes,suchaspost-panamaxcontainershipsordouble-stackingtrains,butalsointermodalequipmenttohandlesignificanttransshipmentdemands.Hard(technical)assetsrequiresoft(management)assets.Informationtechnologieshavegonealongwaytohelpimprovingthelevelofcontroloversupplychains,whichincludesimportantaspectssuchastrackingshipmentsandmanagingfleets.Theissueofe-commercehasparticularlyreceivedattention.(2)CapitalintensivesectorFreighttransportationisacapitalintensivesectorwithhighentrycostsforthemaritimeandrailsegments.Theamortizationofmodesandinfrastructures,particularlyterminals,hastobespreadoverasignificanttimeperiod,sometimesovermorethanadecade.Thisenvironmentispronetorisksandmanypotentialinvestorsareunwillingtocommitcapitalforinfrastructureprojects.Thisareasonwhythegovernmenthasoftenbeencalledtostepin.Still,freighttransportcompaniesaredominantlyprivateentitiesandmustrelyoncapitalmarketstofinancetheirventures.Ifthroughahigherlevelofcoordinationwithotherelementsofthesupplychainagreaterquantityand