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industrialdesigndesignofproductsmadebylarge-scaleindustryformassdistribution.Designingsuchproductsmeans,first,planningtheirstructure,operation,andappearanceandthenplanningthesetofitefficientproduction,distribution,andsellingprocedures.Clearly,appearanceisbutonefactorinsuchacomplexprocess.Nevertheless,inconsumergoodsespecially,appearancedesigniswidelyacceptedastheprincipalvirtueofindustrialdesign;itisthatportionofthewholeleastsubjecttorationalanalysisand,likecraftsecretsofthepast,mostadvantageousincommercialcompetition.Ontheotherhand,designofequipmentforproduction,forservices,andforsportsisexpectedtodemonstrateutility;butintheseproducts,too,appearancedesignisincreasinglyimportant.Industrialdesignissuppliedtomanufacturersbythreekindsofdesigners:staffdesigners,fullyemployedbyonefirm;designersundercontract,whomayserveseveralclientssimultaneously,generallyavoidingconflictsofinterest;andfree-lancers,whoselldesigns,oftenwithroyaltyagreements,tothebest-payingmanufacturer.Thefirstindustrialdesignerrecognizedassuchworkedunderadmirableconditions:PeterBehrens(1868–1940)in1907washiredbytheAllgemeineElektrizitäts-GesellschaftinGermanytobetheirarchitect,industrialdesigner,andgraphicdesigner—infact,togiveunifiedvisiblecharactertothenumerousactivitiesofagiantenterprise.Behrenshadotherclientsandprofessionaldutiesbesides.Amemberofthearchitecturalprofession,Behrensapplieditsstandardsandethicstohisworkasindustrialdesigner,foundingin1907,withothers,animportantassociationofdesignersandbusinessmen,theDeutscherWerkbund.Asadirectresult,anumberoftheseGermanandSwissassociationsbecamewell-establishedprofessionalorganizationsofindustrialdesigners.IntheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainindustrialdesignersinitiatedlegallyrecognizedprofessionalassociations,withcodesofconduct,educationalstandards,etc.InLondontheRoyalSocietyofArtsdesignatesqualifyingpractitionersasRoyalDesignersforIndustry;intheUnitedStatestheIndustrialDesignersSocietyofAmericagrantsmembershipsonlytothosesubscribingtocodesandlimitationsofpractice.InBritaintheCouncilofIndustrialDesignwasestablishedin1944toadviseondesign,recommenddesigners,andprovidecoursesindesignappreciationfortradeandexhibitionsforthepublic.TheInternationalCouncilofSocietiesofIndustrialDesignwasfoundedinLondonin1957,andwithin25yearsithadmembersinmorethan40countries.Industrialdesignhasevolvednounifiedstyle,evenforindustriesinwhichhandworkisminimized.Therehavebeen,however,foursignificantstyletrends.ThefirstoftheseisanemphasisonimpersonalitythatBehrenswasthefirsttoestablish.Designforindustry,whetherdeterminedbyanindividualorbyagroup,showsacertainneutralityofexpression.Impersonalityhas,ontheonehand,beenacclaimedasanaturalaspectofmassproductionandmarketing,ofaveragetasteinademocraticcommunity;ontheotherhand,ithasbeencriticizedassubmissiontothemachine,contradictorytofree,individualexpression.Thestylehas,sofar,persisted.Asecondtrendinindustrialdesignispackaging,suchthatthedesignerprovidesaprotectivecaseforaproduct,leavingtheinnerworkingstoengineers.Complicatedmechanicalandelectronicassembliesthathavecomeintocommonuserequireprotectiveshellsforsafety,cleanliness,andorderlyappearance.Inthisinstance,industrialdesignersaresometimesaccusedofsuperficialembellishmentofasortsuitabletopackagedesignandfashion.Thethirdtrendisstreamlining,adesignprinciplepioneeredbyRaymondLoewyandothersinthe1930sandstillwidelyemployed,althoughthetermitselfhasfallenoutoffashion.Asthenamesuggests,streamliningischaracterizedbycontoursdesignedtominimizeresistancetomotionthroughafluid(asair).Originallyassociatedwithtrains,automobiles,andothervehicles,thebulletshapesandsleeklinesofstreamliningwereseizedbyindustrialdesignersandappliedtoobjects(e.g.,toasters)intrinsicallyunassociatedwithspeed.Thefourthtrendisartificiallyacceleratedobsolescence,thatis,designchangesthatintentionallytemptownerstoreplacegoodswithnewpurchasesmorefrequentlythanwouldbenecessaryasaresultofnormalwearandtearorestablishedcustom.Beginninginthefieldoffashion,artificialobsolescencehasbecomesomethingofacustomitselfinindustrializedcountries.Itoperatesthroughpublicopinionmoldedbyadvertising,throughpricechanges,andthroughimprovementandchangeinutilityaswellasthroughappearancechangeprovidedbydesigners.Itsassessmentmustbeestablishedonwidesocialandeconomicconsiderations,notondesignvaluesalone.Especiallyinthedesignofautomobilesandlargehomeappliances,artificialobsolescencehasarousedstrongcriticism;yet,becauseofitsdemonstrableeconomiceffectiveness,itisusedincreasingly.Itisanessentialaspectoffashionandhasmetwithwideapprovalintheformofdisposabilityinhealthandhygieneproducts.Industrialdesignisagrowingforce,influencingandinfluencedbyworldeconomy,privateefficacyandenjoyment,thearts,engineering,and,notleast,education.Ithascontributedmoretoeconomicactivitythantoaestheticachievement,andmanyseethelatterasitsgreatestchallenge.TheMuseumofModernArt,NewYorkCity,amongotherinstitutions,hassoughttorecognizeoutstandingcontributionstoindustrialdesign.