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11.1.1填空判断：①linguisticscanbedefinedasthescientificorsystematicstudyoflanguage.Itisasciencestudiestherulessystemsandprinciplesoflanguage.3cannons(标准):exhaustiveness全面性consistency一致性economy.②linguisticsstudytheorigin,growth,organization.Natureanddevelopmentoflanguageanddiscoversthegeneralrulesandprinciplesgoverninglanguage.2purposes:studythenature,establishatheoryanddescribelanguagebythattheory;examinesalllanguageandseeksunderstandingwaystofulfilltheneedshumanneed.1.1.2填空判断选择：Linguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar:①linguisticsdescribeslanguagesanddoesnotlaydownrulesofcorrectness.②linguistsregardspokenasprimarynotwritten.Speechcameearlierthanwritingsystem.③traditionalgrammarbasedonLatinwhilelinguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmerits.1.1.4名词解释Microlinguistics:Phonetics(语音学),phonology(语音学),morphology(形态学),syntax(句法学),semantics(语义学),pragmatics(语用学).Macrolinguistics:sociolinguistics(社会语言学),psycholinguistics(心理语言学),stylistics(文体学),discourseanalysis(话语分析),computationallinguistics(计算语言学),cognitivelinguistics(认知语言学)1.2.1全especially判断Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Languageisasystem,arbitrary,vocal.Languageisusedforhumancommunication.1.2.3Arbitrariness(任意性):referstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.Duality(二元性):organizationoflanguageintotwolevels-alevelofsoundswhichcombineintoasecondleveloflargerunitsiscalledduality.languageworksontwolevels:1havenomeaningbutcombinetoformunitesatanotherlevelhavemeaning.Productivity(创造性):linguisticabilityenablestoproduceandunderstandsentences.Interchageability(可交换性):mancanbothproduceandreceivemessageseasily.Displacement(移位性):enablepeopletotalkathinginotherspaceandtime.Specialization:mandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.Culturaltransmission(文化传递):languageisculturallytransmitted.Cannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.1.2.4Phaticfunction交际功能,directivefunction指示功能,informativefunction信息功能,interrogativefunction询问功能,expressivefunction表情功能,evocativefunction召唤功能,performativefunction施为功能,recreationalfunction娱乐功能,metalingualfunction元语言功能（languagecantalkitself）1.3.1descriptiveandprescriptivegrammar描写式&规定式Descriptivedescribeswhatactuallysay,descriptivegrammarsattempttotellwhatisinthelanguagewhileprescriptivegrammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguage.1.3.2synchronicanddiachroniclinguistics共时性和历时性1.3.3langueandparole语言和言语2LangueParoleAbstractknowledgeconcretemanifestationSocialconventionalindividualizedCodemessageStableandsystematicsubjecttopersonalandsituational1.3.4competenceandperformance语言能力和应用Competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakerhaveoftheirlanguageasasystemofabstractrelations,whileperformancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.1.3.5syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations1.3.6functionalismandformalism功能主义和形式主义2.2.2voicedandvoicelesssound浊音和清音2.2.3nasalandoralsounds鼻音和口腔音2oralnasalvoicedbpdmnŋvoicelessptk2.2.4mannerplacebilabialslabiodentalsdentalsalveolarspalatalsvelarsglottalStoppbtdFricativesfvθðszʃʒhAffricatestʃdʒLiquidslrNasalsmnŋglideswjFrontvowels:/i://ı//e//ɛ//ӕ//ɑ/TheheightofthetongueCentralvowels:/з://ə//ʌ/Backvowels:/u://u//ɔ://ɔ//ɑ:/Roundedvowels:/u://u//ɔ://ɔ/TheshapeofthelipUnroundedvowels:/i://ı//e//ɛ//ӕ//ɑ//з://ə//ʌ//ɑ:/Openvowels:/ӕ//ɑ//ɔ//ɑ:/ThewidthofthemouthClosevowels:/i://ı//u://u/Semi-openvowels:/ɔ://e//ɛ//з://ə//ʌ/2.2.5Liaison:Thephenomenonofthelinkingoftwowordsinspeech,inparticularwhenthesecondwordbeginswithavowel,iscalledliaison.Thephrase“anegg”isoftenpronounced/ə’neg/.Elision:thelossofasoundorsoundsinspeechiscalledelision.Theword“suppose”isoftenpronouncedas/spəʊz/,“factory”as/’fӕktrı/.Assimilation:thewaythatsoundsbelongingtoonewordoronesyllablecancausechangesin3soundsbelongingtoneighboringwordsorsyllablesiscalledassimilation.InEnglishthenegativeprefixoccursas“im-”beforewordssuchas“possible”---”impossible”.2.3Phonology:isthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.2.3.1Phonemeisthephonologicalunitsoflanguage,anditisanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichanddistinguishmeaning.Forexample,sipandzipissignaledbythefactthattheinitialsoundofthefirstwordiss/s/andtheinitialsoundofthesecondwordisz/z/./s/and/z/canthereforedistinguishorcontrastwords.Suchdistinctivesoundsarecalledphonemes.2.3.2minimalpairsandsets最小对立体MinimalpairsaretwowordswhichareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestringMinimalpairsarepairsofwordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiatedeachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenwehaveaminimalset.2.3.3freevariationwhentwoormoresoundsoccurinthesamepositonwithoutanyapparentchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Forexample,therearetwopronunciationofthewordeither,wecansay/i:δər/and/’aıδər/.2.3.4distinctivefeaturesWhenafeaturedistinguishesonephonemefromanotheritisadistinctivefeature(oraphonemicfeature).Forexample,sealandzealdistinguishesby/s/ad/z/,/s/isvoicelessand/z/isvoiced