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CHAPTER11.thedefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageorasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.thedefinitionoflanguage:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(system:Theelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Arbitrary任意的:Thereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Vocal口头的:Theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.humancommunication:Languageishuman-specific.)3.designfeaturesoflanguage语言的7种特性:1.Arbitrariness任意性2.Duality双重性(doublearticulation)3.Productivity创造性(Creativity)4.Interchangeability转换性(Reciprocity)5.Displace替代性6.Specialization7.Culturaltransmission4.functionoflanguage:Phaticfunction/communion(寒暄功能);Directivefunction(指令功能):Informativefunction(信息功能):Interrogativefunction(疑问功能):Evocativefunction(情感功能):Performativefunction(施为功能):Expressivefunction(表达功能)5.someconceptsinlinguistics:Descriptive(描写式)andprescriptive(规定式)grammars:Descriptivegrammarsattempttotellwhatisinthelanguage,whileprescriptivegrammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguage.Mostmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Itattemptstodescribewhatpeopleactuallysay.Traditionalgrammarsisprescriptiveforittellpeoplehowtousealanguage.Synchronicanddiachronic(historical)linguistics:Whenwestudylanguageatoneparticulartime,itiscalledsynchroniclinguistics共时语言学.Whenwestudylanguagedevelopmentsthroughtime,itiscalleddiachronicorhistoricallinguistics历史的.Langueandparole:Langereferstotheabstract抽象的linguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolerefertoparticularrealizationsoflangue.Langueisthesocial,conventionalsideoflanguage,whileparoleisindividualizedspeech.Langeisthecode,andparoleisthemessage.--Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic,whereasparoleismorevariableandmaychangeaccordingtocontextualfactors.Paroleandlanguetogetherconstitutelanguage.Competenceandperformance：Competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations.Performancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.--Similarity:Theybothdividelanguageintoknowledgeandbehavior.Difference:Chomsky’s（乔姆斯基美语言学家转换生成语法创始人）competenceisapsychologicalconstructandSaussure’slangueisasetofsocialconvention惯例.CHAPTER2：1．Phone,phoneme,allophone:Aphone--aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phoneistherealizationofthephoneme.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t.Aphoneme---isaphonologicalunit;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbycertainphonesincertainphoneticcontext.itisaunitofdistinctivevalue(Aphonemeiscapableofdistinguishmeaning.)Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.2.ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonants:辅音描述(1.voicedorvoiceless(2,placeofarticulation发音部位---Bilabial(双唇音):[p][b][m][w],Labiodental(唇齿音):[f][v],Dental(齿音)[θ][ð],alveolar(齿龈音):[t][d][s][z][n][l][r],Palatal(腭音):[∫][з][t∫][dз][j],Velar(软腭音):[k][g][η],glottal(喉音[h](3,mannerofarticulation发音方法---stop(塞音)[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricative(擦音):[f][v][s][z][θ][ð][∫][з][h],affricate(塞擦音):[t∫][dз],liquid(流音):[l][r],nasal(鼻音):[m][n][η]glide(滑音):[w][j]3.Classificationofmonophthongs单元音的描述：(1.thepositionoftongueFrontvowels:[i:][i][e][æ]Centralvowels:[з:][ə][∧]Backvowels:[u:][u][כּ:][Þ][α:]lipsareroundedornot---Roundedvowels:[u:][u][כּ:][Þ],Unroundedvowels:[i:][i][e][æ][з:][ə][∧][α:]opennessofmouth---Closevowels:[i:][i][u:][u]Centralvowels:Semi-closevowels:[e][з:],Centralvowels:Semi-openvowels:[ə][כּ:]Openvowels:[æ][Þ][α:][∧]tensenessofthevowel---Longvowels:[i:][u:][α:][з:][כּ:],Shortvowels:[i][u][ə][Þ][æ][e][∧]4.Minimalpairsandsets：Minimalpair：Twodifferentwordsthatareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings.Minimalset：Agroupofwordswhichmeetalltheabove3conditions.5．Thesyllablestructure：Asyllablemusthaveanucleus(核心)orpeak(峰)whichisoftenavowel,sometimesaconsonantplaysthepartofanucleus.Eg:tableconsistsofasyllable[tei]andasyllable[bl],inthefirstsyllable,thenucleus中心is[ei]whileinthesecondoneitistheconsonant[1]tofunctionasthenucleus(apple,bottle,mammal,etc).Differencesinsyllablestructureexistindifferentcultures.Eg:sixths→CVCCCC[siksθs],spring→CCCVC[spriη],eye→V[ai],CV-do,VC-eat,CVC-cat,CCVC-green,VCC-eggs,CCCVC-strike,CVCC-nest,CVCCC-next.6.发音规则？CHAPTER3：1.Amorpheme词素:isaminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction.Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes.1-morpheme(boy,desire)2-morpheme(boy+ish,desir(e)+ble)3-morpheme(boy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity)2.P55图（见上）3.compounding(合成构词法)：N:n+n--rainbow,v+n—pickpocket,n+v—haircut,a+n—highchairV:n+v—tomanhandle,v+v—tosleep-walk,a+v—tohighlightA:n+a—color-blind,v+a—stir-crazy,a+a—dark-blue,n+ving—meneatingCHAPTER4：1.Sentencetypes:Type:SVOCA(S=Subject,V=Verb,O=Object,C=Complement,A=Advervial)eegg::SVOC—Lilyconsiderthebookexpensive.SVOA--Youmustputthetoydownstairs2.J.R.Firth.M.A.K.Halliday:isthemainrepresentativepersonofthistheory.Systemicfunctionalgrammarincludestwoparts:thesystemicgrammar