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一Linguistics:LinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguagePhonetics语音学:Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticscommunicationiscalledphonetics.Forexample,vowelsandconsonantsPhonology音系:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.Forexample,phone,phoneme,andallophone.Morphology形态学:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.Forexample,boyand“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.Syntax句法学:Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.Forexample,”Johnlikelinguistics.”Semantics语义学:Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.Forexample:Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.”Thesealcouldnotbefound,Thekingbecameworried.”Herethewordsealmeansdifferentthings.Pragmatics语用学:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.Forexample,“Ido”Theworddomeansdifferentcontext.Sociolinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics.Forexample,regionaldialects,socialvariationinlanguage.Psycholinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetoworkingsofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.Appliedlinguistics:Theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.SLangue语言:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityParole言语:referstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuseWhatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.Competence能力：theidealusers’knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance运用:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Same:BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandactuallyuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemseriousstudy.Differences:Saussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Prescriptive规定性:aimstolaydownrulesforcorrectbehaviour.Descriptive描述性:describeandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive;itisbasedonhighwrittenlanguage.Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive;Itsinvestigationauthentic,andmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Synchronic共时性:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime.Diachronic历时性:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?Asynchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime,adiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.Speechenjoyspriorityoverwritinginmodernlinguisticsstudyforthefollowingreasons:1)speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution2)alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechtaninwriting3)speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1)Arbitrariness任意性:Differencesoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.2)Productivity创造性：Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.3)Duality二重性：languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Thelowerorthebasiclevelisastructureofmeaninglesssounds.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords.4)Displacement移位性：Languagescanbeusedtorefertocontextremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5)Culturaltransmission文化传递性：Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.二Phonetics语音学:Phoneticsisdefinedasstudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.Articulatoryphonetics发声:Itstudiesthehumanspeechorgansandthewayinwhichtheespeechsoundsareproduced.Auditoryphonetics听觉：itisthestudyoftheperceptionofsoundsbythehumanear.Acousticphonetics声学:Itstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds.Articulatoryapparatus:thePharyngealcavity,theoralcavity,thenasalcavity.Voicingistheresultofthevibrationofthevocalcords.Theoralcavity:Thetongue:thetip,thefront,theblade,theback.Theuvula:thesoftpalate,thehardpalate.Theteethridge:theupperandlowerteeth.Thelips.Thebroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundsbyusingonelettertorepresentonesound.Thenarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithdiacriticstoshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.Leaf:clear//.feel,build:dark//.health:dental//.pit:aspiration//.Spit:unaspiration//Button:syllabicnasal//bymannerofarticulationStops爆破音：[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]Fricatives摩擦音:[f],[v],[s],[z],[θ],[T],[∫],[V],[h]Afficates塞擦音:[],[]Liquids流音:[],[],[]Nasals鼻音:[n],[m],[]Glides滑音（半元音）[w],[j]byplaceofarticulationbilabial双唇音：[p],[b],[m],[w]labiodenta