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Semantics:AnIntroductionAim:TogiveageneralIntroductiononSemanticstotheEnglishMajorsofLinguistics.Letthemgraspbasictermsandknowwhatsemanticsisabout(contentofsemantics)Schedule:1GeneralIntroductiononSemanticsanditsFoundationalIssues2BasicSetTheoryinLinguisticsandPropositionalLogic3WordMeaningandSentenceSemantics4ContextandInference5FunctionsofLanguage:SpeechasAction6MeaningComponentsandInterfacebetweenSemanticsandPragmatics7FormalSemantics8CognitiveSemanticsLectureOneGeneralIntroductiontoSemanticsanditsFoundationalIssuesWhatisSemantics?semanticsisabranchoflinguistics,togetherwithsyntaxandphonology,consistingthefieldoflinguisticstudySemanticsisthescientific/systematicstudyofmeaningcommunicatedthroughlanguage.Therearetwodifferentkindsofsemantics---CompositionalSemanticsandLexicalSemantics.Theformerisabidedbysyntacticrulesandisgivenexplanationbycorrespondingsemanticrules.Apartfromconfirmingwhetherasentenceis“true”or“false”,italsogivesexplanationtotherelationshipbetweensentences,forexample,entailmentsLexicalSemanticsdealswiththeinternalrelationshipbetweenwords,andthemostimportantdevicesindescribingthemeaningrelationsbetweenwordsareComponentialAnalysisandMeaningPresupposition.Whatdoesitmeanby“meaning”?Meaning,byitswidesense,is“allthatiscommunicatedbylanguage”.Inanarrowsense,itreferstologicalmeaningorconceptualmeaning.FormalSemanticsFormalSemanticsisafamilyofdenotativetheoriesthatuselogicinsemanticanalysis.Therearemanydifferentnamesforit:truth-condtionalsemantics,model-theoreticsemantics,MontagueGrammar,andlogicalsemanticsUnderstandingthemeaningofanutteranceisbeingabletomatchitwiththesituationitdescribes.Thesearchformeaningisthesearchforhowthesymbolsoflanguagerelatetoreality.Objectivismisthedoctrinethatformalsemanticistsholdstrongly.Objectivismmeans:1Theworldismadeupofobjects.Theyhavepropertiesindependentofanypeopleorotherbeingswhoexperiencethem.2Wegetourknowledgeoftheworldbyexperiencingtheobjectsinitandgettingtoknowwhatpropertiestheobjecthaveandhowtheseobjectsarerelatedtooneanother.3Weunderstandtheobjectinourworldintermsofcategoriesandconcepts.4Thereisanobjectivereality,andwecansaythingsthatareobjectively,absolutely,andunconditionallytrueorfalseaboutit.5Wordshavefixedmeanings.6Peoplecanbeobjectiveandcanspeakobjectively,buttheycandosoonlyiftheyuselanguagethatisclearlyandpreciselydefined,thatisstraightforwardanddirect,andthatcanfitreality.7Metaphorsorotherkindsoffigurativelanguageshouldbeavoided,sincetheirmeaningsarenotclearandpreciseanddonotfitrealityinanyobviousway.8Beingobjectiveisgenerallyagoodthing.Onlyobjectiveknowledgeisrealknowledge.9Tobeobjectiveistoberational.1Meaningisobjective;2Meaningisdisembodied,thatis,objectivemeaningisnotmeaningtoanyone,itisindependentofanyhumanbeing;3Fittingthewordstotheworldwithoutpeopleorhumanunderstanding;4Atheoryofmeaningisbasedonatheoryoftruth;5Meaningisindependentofuse.Ifmeaningistobeobjective,itmustexcludeallsubjectiveelements---thatis,anythingpeculiartoaparticularcontext,cultureormodeofunderstanding.6Meaningiscompositional(TheBuilding-blockTheory).CognitivesemanticsNoseparationoflinguisticknowledgefromgeneralthinkingorcognition.Linguisticbehaviorisanotherpartofthegeneralcognitiveabilitiesthatallowlearning,reasoningetc.Thatis,Linguisticknowledgeispartofgeneralcognition.Cognitivelinguistsfocuson1conceptualstructureandstructuralfeaturesofnaturallanguagecategorization,suchas“conceptualmetaphor”,“mentalspace”,“prototypicality”,“cognitivemodel”,“image”,etc.2functionalprinciplesoflinguisticconstruction,suchas“iconicity”,“naturalness”,“markedness”,etc.3conceptualinterfacebetweensyntaxandsemantics,suchasLangacker’sCognitiveGrammar,Fillmore’sFrameSemanticsandConstructionGrammar;4experienceoflanguageuseandpragmaticbackground;5relationbetweenlanguageandthought.CognitiveSemanticsproposedbyGeorgeLakofftakesexperientialismasitsphilosophicalbasis.Metaphorandcategorizationaretwoimportantdevicesincognitivesemantics.TraditionalSemantics(GeneralSemantics)Leech(1985)breaks“meaning”initswidestsenseintosevendifferentingredients:logicalmeaningorconceptualmeaning(理性意义),whichisinconnectionwith“semanticcompetence”;connotativemeaning(内涵意义);socialmeaning(社会意义);affectivemeaning(情感意义);reflectedmeaning(反映意义);collocativemeaning(搭配意义);thematicmeaning(主题意义)Conceptualmeaning(alsocalleddenotativeorcognitivemeaning)iswidelyassumedtobethecentralfactorinlinguisticcommunication.Theaimofconceptualsemanticsprovide,foranygiveninterpretationofasentence,aconfigurationofabstractsymbolswhichisits“semanticrepresentation”Connotativemeaningisthecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.1.Talkingaboutconnotationmeanstalkingaboutthe“realworld”experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsaboutit.2.Connotationsarerelativelyunstable:theyvaryaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.Therefore,connotativemeaningisperipheralcomparedwithconceptualmeaning.3.Connotativemeaningisindeterminateando
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