英语语义学semantics

semanticsSemanticsisgenerallyconsideredtobethestudyofmeaninginlanguage.WhatisSemantics?SomeViewsonMeaning1)OneoftheoldestviewsistheNamingTheory.—byPlatoTheformisawordinalanguageandthemeaningistheobjectintheworldthatitstandsfor,referstoordenotes.?Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Inotherwords,thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenwordsandthingsistherelationshipofnaming.WeakpointsofNamingTheories1)Thistheoryseemstoapplyonlytonouns.2)evenwithnouns,therewillbeproblems,becausemanynounssuchasunicorn,fairy,ghost,heavenrelatetocreaturesorthingsthatdonotexist.2.Conceptualistview—Ogden&RichardsThistheoryholdsthatwordsandthingsarerelatedthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.ThiscanbebestillustratedbytheSemanticTriangleadvancedbyOgdenandRichards.ThoughtorReferenceSymbolReferentThoughtorReferenceSymbolReferentLinguisticelementssuchaswordsorsentencesTheobject,etc,intheworldofexperienceconceptAccordingtothistheory,thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolandreferent(betweenlanguageandtheworld).Thelinkisviathoughtorreference,theconceptsofourminds.Thistheoryraisesanewproblem.Forexample,1)whatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandconcept?Weakpoints?•2)Howtoidentify“concepts”?•Howdoyouknowtheconceptof“pain”inyourmindisthesameastheconceptof“pain”inmymind?Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthelinkissimplyapsychologicalone---whenwethinkofaname,wethinkofaconcept.Theproblemisthatpeopledon’tactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmind’seyeeverytimetheyutteraword.3.ContextualismDuringtheperiodroughlyfrom1930to1960,linguistsgavepre-eminencetotheempiricalorobservationalaspectinthestudyofmeaning.Thistheoryholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context---elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Firth,theleadingBritishlinguistoftheperiodheldtheviewthat“Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.”LinguisticContext:theProbabilityofaWord’sCo-occurrenceorCollocationWithAnotherWord.TheSituationalContext:time,place,speakerandHearer,theActions,theVariousObjectsandEventscontextapieceofpaperadailypaperanexaminationpaperawhitepaperatermpaper4.behaviouristtheoryAccordingtoBloomfield,themeaningofalinguisticformshouldbeviewedas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersit,andtheresponsewhichitcallsforthinthehearer.”SrsREventsbeforespeechEventsafterspeechSpeechthefamousaccountofJackandJillSrsREventsbeforespeechEventsafterspeechSpeechBloomfieldarguedthatmeaningconsistsintherelationbetweenspeechandthepracticaleventsSandRthatprecedeandfollowit.5.MentalismThisapproachhasbeenheadedbyChomskysince1960’sMentalistsbelievethatdataneededforthestudyoflanguagecanbesuppliedbydirectresorttointuition.Theyarguethatpeopleoftenjudgewhichsentencesaresynonymous,whichsentencesareambiguous,whichsentencesareill-formedorabsurd,basedontheirintuition.ThereforetheyregardthetaskofsemanticsmainlyasonetoexplainthosedatasuppliedbydirectresorttointuitionbyconstructingtheoriesLeech’sclassificationofmeaning•Sevenkindsofmeaning:conceptual,connotative,social,affective,reflected,collocativeandthematic•Conceptualmeaning:denotativemeaning.Itcanbestudiedintermsofcontrastivefeatures.•E.g.:woman+human–male+adultConnotativemeaning•Connotativemeaningisunstableandopen-ended.Theyvaryaccordingtoculture,historicalperiodandexperienceofanindividual.•Woman:frail,pronetotears,gentle,sensitive…Socialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)•It’sthemeaningwhichlanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.•Steed,horse,gee-geeAffectivemeaning(evaluativemeaning)•Itreflectsthepersonalfeelingofthespeakerincludinghisattitudetowardthelistenerorsthheistalkingabout.LexicalMeaningTwoConceptstoUnderstandSenseVsReferenceSenseVsreference•Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform..•Features:abstract,de-contextualized•Reference:Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointheworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldSenseandreference•Thesamesensehasdifferentreferences:•Thebookistoodifficulttoread.•Ioftenreadbooksinthemorning.•Thesamereferencemightdifferinsense:•MorningstarandeveningstarSenseSenserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves;itisconcernedonlywithintra-linguisticrelations.Cow/hello,sow（母猪）/boar,ewe(母羊）/ram,mare（母马）/stallionetc.formapatternindicatingameaningrelatedtosex.Pairsofwordscanbeformedintocertainpatternstoindicatesenserelations.Duck/ducking,pig/piglet,dog/puppy,lion/cub,etc.formanotherpatternindicatingarelationshipbetweenadultandyoung.Narrow/wide,male/female,buy/sell,etc.showadifferentpatternrelatedtoopposition.Infact,whenwearetalkingofsenserelations,wearetalkingofsynonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,polysemy,homonymy,etc.3.2synonymySynonymyisusedtomean“samenessofmeaning”Contextplaysanimportantpartindecidingwhetherasetoflexicalitemsissynonymous.Whatanice----offlowers!Theitems“range,selection,choice,”etc.aresynonymous.His----ofknowledgeisenormous!Range,breadth,etc.aresynonymous.Differenceinmeaningamazeandastoundformapairofsynonyms.Bothsuggestgreatwonderorbewildermentinthefaceofsomethingthatseemsimpossibleorhighlyimprobable.Buttheydifferindegre