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11Chapter1:Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.(Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butitstudieslanguageingeneral)2.Generallinguistics:普通语言学Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics.(languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets)3.Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.4.descriptive(描述性):Alinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.5.prescriptive(规定性):Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviors.i.e.whattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnottosay.6.synchronic(共时语言学):thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointoftimeinhiatory7.diachronic(历时语言学):thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtime3)speech（口语）Writing（书面语）Thesethetwomediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.(speechispriortowriting)8.langue(语言):referstoabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofthespeechcommunity.Itisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Suchas:InEnglishsentencemusthavesubjectandpredicate.9.parole(言语):referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Itisconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.(Saussure)10.competence(语言能力):theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage11.performance(语言应用):theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.(Chomsky)traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics1.linguisticsisdescriptive,whiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive2.modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewriter.3.alsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoalatin-basedframework.Functionsoflanguage.121.thedescriptivefunction.2.theexpressivefunction3.thesocialfunctionChapter2:Phonology音系学phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages9.Thethreebranchesofphonetics(1).Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)(longesthistory)(2.)Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acousticphonetics(声学语音学）2.Speechorgans:threeimportantareas⑴Pharyngealcavity咽腔----thethroat;⑵Theoralcavity口腔----themouth;⑶Nasalcavity–鼻腔---thenose.Theprinciplesourcesuchmodificationsisthetongue.Thetongueisthemostflexible.InternationalPhoneticAlphabet[IPA]:thebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription宽式音标.Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.Narrowtranscription窄式音标Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.Aspiratedandunaspirated1).phonology:音系学Itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.4.Phone,phoneme,allophoneAphone音素isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].Aphoneme音位isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].Allophones音素变体----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments13sequentialrule,⑴Sequentialrule(序列规则):rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.⑵Assimilationrule（同化规则）:ruleassimilatingonesoundtoanotherbycopyingfeaturesofsequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.⑶Deletionrule（省略规则）:rulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.6.Suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）⑴StressWordstressandsentencestress⑵Tone声调Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.⑶Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)thefrise-falltone(notfrequentlyused)Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.Chapter3:Morphology1).Morphology形态学:referstothethestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed2).Morpheme词素:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.3).Freemorpheme自由词素:amorphemecanbeawordbyitself.4).Boundmorpheme.黏着词素:amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotherone.5).Allmorphs词素变体:thevariantformsofamorphemeChapter4:SyntaxSyntax句法学:Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Word-levelcategories1,Majorlexicalcategories2.minorlexicalcategories14Todetermineaword’scategorie,threecriteraareusuallyemployed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacentainwordcategorycomplementizerswordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementcomplementclausethesentenceintroducedbythecmomplementizersD-structure:formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationpropertiesS-structure:correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsformappropriatetransformation.Chapter5:SemanticsSemantics:语义学canbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.1）The