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现代语言学1language:languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1interlanguage:Thetypeoflanguageproducedbynonnativespeakersintheprocessoflearningasecondlanguageorforeignlanguage.1Linguistics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage2Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticscommunicationiscalledphonetics.Forexample,vowelsandconsonants3Phonology”:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.Forexample,phone,phoneme,andallophone.4Morphology形态学:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.Forexample,boyand“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5Syntax句型:Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.Foresample,”Johnlikelinguistics.”6Semantics语义学:Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.Forexample,:Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.”Thesealcouldnotbefound,Thekingbecameworried.”Herethewordsealmeansdifferentthings.7Pragmatics语用学:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.Forexample,“Ido”Theworddomeansdifferentcontext.二音系学1Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics.2Phonology:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.3Phone:Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegement.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedon’t.4Phoneme音素:Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.5allophone同位音:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.6Complementarydistribution:Thesetwoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.7Minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegementwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.10intonation朗诵:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleinconveyingmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish{$isbest}三形态学1morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammerwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.2inflectionalmorphology:Inflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflectionsofword-formation.3derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.4morpheme词素:Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.5freemorpheme:Freemorphemearethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselcesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.6boundmorpheme:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.7root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.8affix:Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.9prefix:Prefixoccuratthebeginningofaword.10suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.11derivation:Derivationaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreataword.Derivationcanbeviewedastheaddingofaffixestostemtoformneswords.12compounding:Likederivation,compoundingisanotherpopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatnewwords.四句法学1linguisticcompetence:Comskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.2sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.3transformationrules:Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformationalrules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.4D-structure:Asentencemayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation.Oneexistsbeforemovementtakeplace,theotheroccursaftermovementtakeplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationarecommonlytermedasD-structure.五语义学1semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.2sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractanddecontextualized.3reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.4synonymy同义词:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonymy.5polysemy一词多义:Polysemyreferstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Awordhavingmorethanonemeaningiscalledapolysemicword.6antonymy:Antonymyreferstotheoppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningarecalledantonyms.7homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling