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Chapter1Translationcanrefertothegeneralsubjectfield,theproductortheprocess.Theprocessoftranslationbetweentwodifferentwrittenlanguagesinvolvesthetranslatorchanginganoriginalwrittentextintheoriginalverballanguageintoawrittentextinadifferentverballanguage.ThreecategoriesoftranslationbytheRussian-AmericanstructuralistRomanJakobson1intralingualtranslation语内翻译：Rewording,aninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofothersignsofthesamelanguage;2interlingualtranslation语际翻译:Translationproper*,aninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsomeotherlanguage;3intersemiotictranslation语符翻译transmutation,aninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsignsofnon-verbalsignsystems.Historyofthediscipline1,Fromlateeighteenthcenturytothe1960s:partoflanguagelearningmethodologyTranslationworkshop,comparativeliterature,contrastiveanalysis2,JamesSHolmes“thenameandnatureoftranslationstudies”(foundingstatementforthefield)3,1970:Reiss:texttypeReissandVermeer:textpurpose(theskopostheory)Halliday:discourseanalysisandsystemicfunctionalgrammar4,1980Themanipulationschool:descriptiveapproach,polysystem5,1990SherrySimon:GenderresearchElseVieira:BraziliancannibalistschoolTejaswiniNiranjana:PostcolonialtranslationtheoryLawrenceVenuti:cultural-studies-orientedanalysisHolmes’smapoftranslationstudiesTheobjectivesofthepureareasofresearch:1,descriptivetranslationtheory:thedescriptionofthephenomenaoftranslation2,translationtheory:theestablishmentofgeneralprinciplestoexplainandpredictsuchphenomenaPure:theoreticalanddescriptiveDTS:descriptivetranslationstudies1,product-orientedDTS:existingtranslations,text(diachronicorsynchronic)2,function-orientedDTS:thefunctionoftranslationsintherecipientsocioculturalsituation(socio-translationstudiesorcultural-studies-orientedtranslation)3,process-orientedDTS:thepsychologyoftranslation(laterthink-aloudprotocols)RelationbetweenTheoreticalanddescriptiveTheresultsofDTSresearchcanbefedintothetheoreticalbranchtoevolveeitherageneraltheoryoftranslationor,morelikely,partialtheoriesoftranslation.Partialtheories1,Medium-restrictedtheories:translationbymachineandhumans2,Area-restrictedtheories:3,Rank-restrictedtheories:thelevelofword,sentenceortext4,Text-typerestrictedtheories:discoursetypesorgenres5,Time-restrictedtheories:6,Problem-restrictedtheories:AppliedbranchofHolmes’sframework:translatortraining,translationaidsandtranslationcriticism.Translationpolicy:thetranslationscholaradvisingontheplaceoftranslationinsocietyChapter2translationtheorybeforethetwentiethcentury2.1Literalvs.freedebateCicero(firstcenturyBCE):Ididnotholditnecessarytorenderwordforword,butIpreservedthegeneralstyleandforceofthelanguage.Horace:producinganaestheticallypleasingandcreativetextintheTL.StJerome:Irendernotwordforword,butsenseforsense.2.2MartinLuther:1,non-literalornon-acceptedtranslationcametobeseenandusedasaweaponagainsttheChurch.2,hisinfusionoftheBiblewiththelanguageofordinarypeopleandhisconsiderationoftranslationintermsfocusingontheTLandtheTTreaderwerecrucial.2.3LouisKelly:Fidelity:toboththewordsandtheperceivedsenseSpirit:1,creativeenergyorinspirationofatextorlanguage,propertoliterature;2,theHolySpirit(StAugustine).(StJeromeemployeditinbothsenses.)Truth:content17century:2.4EarlyattemptsatsystematictranslationtheoryCowley:imitationCountertheinevitablelossofbeautyintranslationbyusingourwitorinventiontocreatenewbeauty;hehas‘taken,leftoutandaddedwhatIplease’JohnDrydenreducesalltranslationtothreecategories:thetriadicmodel(约翰德莱顿的三分法:“直译”、“意译”与“仿译”)1,metaphrase:wordforwordtranslation2,paraphrase:senseforsensetranslation3,imitation:forsakebothwordsandsenseEtienneDolet:aFrenchhumanist,burnedatthestakeforhisadditiontohistranslationofoneofPlato’sdialogues.Fiveprinciples:①Thetranslatormustperfectlyunderstandthesenseandmaterialoftheoriginalauthor,althoughheshouldfeelfreetoclarifyobscurities.②ThetranslatorshouldhaveaperfectknowledgeofbothSLandTL,soasnottolessenthemajestyofthelanguage.③Thetranslatorshouldavoidword-for-wordrenderings.④ThetranslatorshouldavoidLatinateandunusualforma.⑤Thetranslatorshouldassembleandliaisewordseloquentlytoavoidclumsiness.AlexanderFraserTytlerTL-reader-orienteddefinitionofagoodtranslation:That,inwhichthemeritoftheoriginalworkissocompletelytransfusedintoanotherlanguage,astobeasdistinctlyapprehended,andasstronglyfelt,byanativeofthecountrytowhichthatlanguagebelongs,asitisbythosewhospeakthelanguageoftheoriginalwork.Threegeneralrules:I.ThattheTranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork.II.Thatthestyleandmannerofwritingshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal.III.ThattheTranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoforiginalcomposition.——A.F.Tytler:EssayonthePrinciplesofTranslationTytlerrankshisthreelawsinorderofcomparativeimportance:Easeofcompositionwouldbesacrificedifnecessaryformanner,andadeparturewouldbemadefrommannerintheinterestsofsense.2.5FriedrichSchleiermacher:thefounderofmodernProtestanttheologyandofmodernhermeneuticsHermeneutics:aRomanticapproachtointerpretationbasednotonabsolutetruthbutontheindividual’sinnerfeelingandunderstanding.2t