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Unit2FruitfulQuestionsTheothernightatthedinnertable,mythreekids--ages9,6and4--tooktimeoutfromtheirfoodfighttoteachmeaboutparadigmshifts,andlimitationsoflinearthinkingandhowtorefocusparameters.Here’showithappened:WewereplayingourownoralversionoftheSesameStreetgame,“WhatDoesn’tBelong?,”wherekidslookatthreepicturesandchoosetheonethatdoesn’tfit.Isaid,“OK,whatdoesn’tbelong,anorange,atomatoorastrawberry?”Theoldestdidn’ttakemorethanasecondtodeliverhissmuganswer:“Tomatobecausetheothertwoarefruits.”Iagreedthatthiswastherightanswerdespitethefactthatsomepuristsinsistatomatoisafruit.Tothoseofusforcedaskidstoeattheminsalads,tomatoeswillalwaysbevegetables.Iwasabouttothinkupanothersetofthreewhenmy4-year-oldsaid,“Therightanswerisstrawberrybecausetheothertwoareroundandastrawberryisn’t.”HowcouldIarguewiththat?Thenmy6-year-oldsaid,“It’stheorangebecausetheothertwoarered.”Nottobeoutdonebyhisyoungersiblings,the9-year-oldsaid,“Itcouldalsobetheorangebecausetheothertwogrowonvines.”Themiddleonetookthisasadirectchallenge.“Itcouldbethestrawberrybecauseit’stheonlyoneyouputonicecream.”Somethingwasdefinitelyhappeninghere.Itwasmessierthanafoodfightandmuchmoreimportantthanwhetheratomatoisafruitorvegetable.MykidsweredoingwhatCopernicusdidwhenheplacedthesunatthecenteroftheuniverse,readjustingthecenturies-oldparadigmofanEarth-centeredsystem.TheyweredoingwhatReubenMattusdidwhenherenamedhisBronxicecreamHäagen-Dazsandraisedthepricewithoutchangingtheproduct.TheyweredoingwhatEdwardJennerdidwhenhediscoveredavaccinationforsmallpoxbyabandoninghisquestforacure.Insteadofstudyingpeoplewhoweresickwithsmallpox,hebegantostudypeoplewhowereexposedtoitbutnevergotsick.Hefoundthatthey’dallcontractedasimilarbutmilderdisease,cowpox,whichvaccinatedthemagainstthedeadlysmallpox.Theywererefocusingtheparameters.Theywereredefiningtheproblems.Theywerereframingthequestions.Inshort,theyweredoingwhateveryscientistwho’severmadeanimportantdiscoverythroughouthistoryhasdone,accordingtoThomasKuhn,inhisbook,TheStructureofScientificRevolutions:Theywereshiftingoldparadigms.Butifthishadbeenaworkbookexerciseinschool,everykidwhodidn’tcircletomatowouldhavebeenmarkedwrong.Everykidwhoframedthequestiondifferentlythan“Whichisnotafruit?”wouldhavebeenwrong.Maybethatexplainswhysomanyoftheworld’smostbrilliantscientistsandinventorswerefailuresinschool,themostnotablebeingAlbertEinstein,whowasperhapsthiscentury’smostpotentparadigm-shifter.Thisisnotmeanttobeacritiqueofschools.Lordknows,that’seasyenoughtodo.Thisis,instead,areminderthattherearereallimitstothevalueofinformation.Ibringthisupbecauseweseemtobeatapointintheevolutionofoursocietywhereeveryoneisclamoringformoretechnology,forinstantaccesstoever-growingbodiesofinformation.Studentsmustbeonline.YourhomemustbedigitallyconnectedtotheWorldWideWeb.Businessesmustbeabletodownloadvolumesofdatainstantaneously.Butunlessweshiftourparadigmsandrefocusourparameters,thesuperinformationhighwaywillleadusnowhere.Wearenotnow,norhavewerecentlybeensufferingfromalackofinformation.ThinkhowmuchmoreinformationwehavethanCopernicushadfourcenturiesago.Andhedidn’tdoanythinglessEarth-shattering(punintended)thancompletelychangethewaytheuniversewasviewed.Hedidn’tdoitbyuncoveringmoreinformation--hediditbylookingdifferentlyatinformationeveryoneelsealreadyhadlookedat.EdwardJennerdidn’tinventpreventivemedicinebyaccumulatinginformation;hediditbyreframingthequestion.Whatweneedaswebegintodownshiftontotheinformationhighwayisnotmoreinformationbutnewwaysoflookingatit.Weneedtodiscover,asmykidsdid,thatthereismorethanonerightanswer,thereismorethanonerightquestionandthereismorethanonewaytolookatabodyofinformation.Weneedtorememberthatwhenyouhaveonlyahammer,youtendtoseeeveryproblemasanail.获益匪浅的问题不久前的一个晚上在餐桌旁，我的三个孩子--年龄分别为9岁、6岁和4岁--暂时停止争抢食物，腾出时间教我认识什么是范式变换、什么是线性思考的局限以及如何重新看待相关的各种因素。事情是这样的：当时我们在玩自己那套只动嘴的“哪个不是同一类？”的芝麻街游戏。本来玩这游戏时，孩子们要看三张画并挑出那张不属同一类的画。我说：“来吧，哪个不是同一类，桔子，西红柿，还是草莓？”老大很快就说出了自以为非常得意的答案：“西红柿，因为其他两种是水果。”我承认这是正确答案，尽管有些纯粹主义者坚决认为西红柿是一种水果。对我们这些从小就被迫吃拌在色拉里的西红柿的人来说，西红柿永远是蔬菜。我正准备再出一道三种东西为一组的题目时，我4岁的孩子说：“正确答案是草莓，因为另外两种是圆的，草莓却不圆。”我怎么能驳斥这种论点呢？接着，我6岁的孩子说：“不属同一类的是桔子，因为另外两种是红色的。”9岁的孩子不想让弟妹占上风，说道：“不是同一类的也可以是桔子，因为其他两种长在藤上。”老二把这看作对他发出的挑战。“可以是草莓，因为只有草莓会放在冰淇淋上。”毫无疑问，这里正发生着什么事儿。这事儿比争抢食物还乱，比西红柿是水果还是蔬菜重要得多。哥白尼把太阳视为宇宙中心，重新调整了地心说这一长达数世纪的范式，我的孩子们正做着哥白尼当年做的事。鲁宾·马修斯把他的布朗克斯冰淇淋改名为哈根达斯，在不改变产品的情况下提高了价格，我的孩子们正做着鲁宾·马修斯做过的事。爱德华·詹纳放弃了寻找治疗天花的特效药，从而发现了能预防这一疾病的疫苗，我的孩子们正做着爱德华·詹纳做过的事。他不去研究得了天花的患者，而去研究接触天花却从未染上此病的人。他发现他们都患了一种类似天花但比较轻微的疾病：牛痘；牛痘使他们得以防止染上致命的天花。他们在重新看待相关的各种因素。他们在重新认识他们的问题。他们在重新表述他们的问题。总之，据托马斯·库恩在他的《科学革命的结构》一书中所言，他们正做着历史上有过重大发现的科学家都曾做过的事：他们在改变旧的范式。但假若我们的游戏是学校里做在作业本上的练习，那么没有把西红柿圈出来的孩子全都会被批为答错。凡是没有把问题解读为“哪个不是水果”的孩子都是错的。也许这种情形说明了为什么世界上最杰出的科学家和发明家中有那么多的人读书时是不及格的学生。其中最引人注目的是阿尔贝特·爱因斯坦，他也许是本世纪最有影响的范式改变者。这样说，并不是想对学校评头品足。天知道，发一通议论太容易了。这样说，不过是想提醒大家信息的价值实在是有限的。我提出这一点，是因为我们的社会似乎发展到了这样一个阶段，人人都大声要求得到更多的技术，大声要求即刻享用不断增多的信息。学生们必须联机。你们家必须用数码与环球信息网连通。企业必须能即时下载大量资料。但是，除非我们改变范式、重新看待相关的各种因素，否则，信息高速公路就不会给我们带来什么结果。无论是现在还是最近，我们都不缺信息。试想我们拥有的信息比四百年前的哥白尼多了多少。但他作出了足以震撼地球的（权作双关语）惊人之举，完全改变了人们对宇宙的看法。他作出此举不是靠发现更多的信息，而是靠用不同的眼光来看大家都看到过的信息。爱德华·詹纳不