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PragmaticsHeatedAttendantParking•A.Youtakeanattendant,youheathim/herup,andthisiswhereyoucanparkhim/her.•B.Wecanparkacarinthisplace,it’saheatedarea,andtherewillbeanattendanttolookafterthecar.MoreIntroductoryExamples•Ex.1•Ihaveapapertotypewrite.•Canyoutypethispaperforme?•I’mbusynow.•Canyoulendyourtypewritertome?•Ex.2•AbullmarketinDianas(U.S.NewsandWorldReport,Jan.12,1998124/1)•Abullmarketisamarketinwhichsharepricesarerising.Ex.3•季交恕：你知道这个消息吗？•方维夏：什么消息？•季交恕：蒋介石开刀了？•方维夏：什么病开刀？•季交恕：你还睡觉！杀人！••——李六如《六十年的变迁》Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersusethesentencesofalanguagetoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmaticsisdifferentfromtraditionalsemanticsinthatitstudiesmeaningnotinisolationbutincontext.Semanticiststakemeaningtobeaninherentpropertyoflanguage;pragmaticistsregardmeaningassomethingthatisrealizedinthecourseofcommunication.Semantics:whatdoesXmean?Pragmatics:whatdoesthespeakermeanbyX?PragmaticAnalysis你怎么还没走？Thinkwhatthespeakermaymeanbysayingit?A.说话人知道听话人要在某个时间外出开会（或办事、或送人上火车、或赴宴等），眼看已经快误点了，说话人对听话人说：“你怎么还没走”？意义：提醒、催促，或是对听话人不守时间的批评。若考虑双方的关系：上下级关系、师生关系、父母子女之间，恋人之间等，则可理解的意思还多些。B.一个人老想着出国，老对别人说要办好手续了，但老也没见他出国。有人就说：“你怎么还没走”？意义：关心、调侃或嘲讽。•C.下班时间早过了，某人还在办公室忙乎，值班人员过来锁门，说：“你怎么还没走”？•意思：爱护、生气或某种猜测•D.一个普通老百姓来到某个部门办事，被某个态度不好的工作人员拒之门外。过了半天，那工作人员看见老百姓还在门口，于是说：“你怎么还不走”？•意思：可以比较肯定地认为，这是一种不太友好的态度，是让对方赶快走开的意思。SentenceMeaningUtteranceMeaningItistheabstractcontext-independententitycalledsemanticproposition.Itiscontext-dependent.Itistheproductofsentencemeaningandcontext.Therefore,itisricherthanthemeaningofthesentence.刘勰《文心雕龙·章句》“人之而言，因字而生句，积句而成章，积章而成篇。篇之彪炳，章之无疵也；章之明靡，句无玷也；句之精英，字无妄也。”上下文、话语理解、话语表达Contextplaysacrucialroleininterpretingthemeaningofanutterance.ContextLinguisticcontextContextTheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearerSituationalcontextAmazingly,healreadylovesher.Somethingmaleandanimatehasarrivedatastateofadorationofsomethingfemaleandanimate.JohnmetMaryyesterday.Amazingly,healreadylovesher.Linguisticcontext:discourseThediscoursethatprecedesandfollowsthephraseorsentencetobeinterpretedTheknowledgeofthelanguage1.Johnsawtheboywiththetelescope.Danalsosawhim.Apronounreplacesthepreceedingnounphrase.2.EmilyhuggedCassidyandZacharydidtoo.Pro-verb3.Iamsick,whichdepressesme.Pro-sentence4.A:Myauntwashedthedishes.B:Myuncledried.Ellipsis5.JillwashedthegrapesandBillthecherries.Yourex-husbandisdancingwithsomeone,butIdon’tknowwho.Mycatatesomething,andIwishIknewwhat.Shesaidshewascomingover,butshedidnotsaywhen.SluicingA:Isawaboyandagirlholdinghandsandkissing.B:Oh,itsoundslovely.A:Yes,theboywasquitetallandhandsome,andheseemedtolikethegirlalot.Therearesuchrulesofdiscoursethataviolationproducesunacceptableresults.A:Yes,aboywasquitetallandhandsome,andheseemedtolikeagirlalot.e.g.Itseemsthatthemanlovesthewoman.Manypeoplethinkhelovesher.Itseemsthatthemanlovesthewoman.Manypeoplethinkhelovesher!SituationalcontextTheknowledgeabouttheworldIwavedtoFrankie,who’dthrownthebowlineonboard,andIheadedheroutoftheslipanddroppeddownthechannelwithher.ABritishfreighterwasgoingoutandIranalongbesideherandpassedher.Shewasloadeddeepwithsugarandherplateswererusty.AlimeyinanoldbluesweaterlookeddownatmefromhersternasIwentbyher.(Hemingway,Tohaveandhavenot)AndthatafternoonSuecametothebedwhereJohnsylayandputonearmaroundher.“Ihavesomethingtotellyou,whitemouse,”shesaid.“Mr.Behrmandiedofpneumoniatodayinthehospital.Hewasillonlytwodays...”(O.Henry,TheLastLeaf)…ayounghealthychildwellnursedisatayearoldamostdelicious,nourishing,andwholesomefood,whetherstewed,roasted,baked,orboiled;andImakenodoubtthatitwillequallyserveinafricasseeoraragout.Thosewhoaremorethrifty(asImustconfessthetimesrequire)mayflaythecarcass;theskinofwhichartificiallydressedwillmakeadmirableglovesforladies,andsummerbootsforfinegentlemen.(JonathanSwift,AModestProposal)…ThenobleBrutus,HathtoldyouCaesarwasambitious:Ifitwereso,itwasagrievousfault,AndgrievouslyhathCaesaransweredit.Here,underleaveofBrutusandtherest,---ForBrutusisanhonourableman;Soaretheyall,allhonourablemen,---ComeItospeakinCaesar’sfuneral.Hewasmyfriend,faithfulandjusttome:ButBrutussayshewasambitious;AndBrutusisanhonourableman.HehathbroughtmanycaptivehomestoRome,Whoseransomsdidthegeneralcoffersfill:DidthisinCaesarseemambitious?Whenthatthepoorhavecried,Caesarhathwept:Ambitionshouldbemakeofsternerstuff:YetBrutussayshewasambitious;Shakespeare,JuliusCaesarAndBrutusisanhonourableman.YoualldidseethatontheLupercalIthricepresentedhimakinglycrown,Whichhedidthricerefuse.Wasthisambitious?YetBrutussayshewasambitious;And,sure,heisanhonourableman.IspeaknottodisprovewhatBrutusspoke,ButhereIamtospeakwhatIdoknow.Youalldidlovehimonce,notwithoutcause:Whatcausewithholdsyouthentomournforhim?Ojudgment,thouartfledtoobrutishbeasts,Andmenhavelosttheirreason!–Bearwithme;MyheartisinthecoffinherewithCaesar,AndImustpausetillitcomebacktome.Whetherawordispejorativeornotdependsonthecontext.Howisthehumoristiceffectcreatedinthefollowing?SpeechActTheorySpeechacttheorywasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50’s.Accordingtothistheory,weareperformingvariouskindsofactswhenwe