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Whichenergysourceforroadtransportinthefuture?Acomparisonofbattery,hybridandfuelcellvehiclesJ.VanMierlo*,G.Maggetto,Ph.LataireDepartmentofElectricalEngineeringandEnergyTechnology(ETEC),VrijeUniversiteitBrussel,Pleinlaan2,1050Brussels,BelgiumAvailableonline23March2006AbstractThehydrogeneraisforeseenfollowingtheEuropeanresearchprogrammeinatimehorizonof2020–2040.Buttherewillbeclearlyachoicetobemadebetweenanelectroneconomy(directuseoftheproducedelectricity)andthesocalled‘‘hydrogeneconomy’’whichleadstotheintroductionofanintermediatehydrogenproduction,transportanddistributionprocessbeforethefinaluseinanelectricalprocess.Thispaperconsidersonlypassengercaranddeliveryvansapplications.Inthisfieldabigtimegapistobefilledbetweenthesituationtoday,theoccurrenceofoilshortageinaquiteshortfutureandthistimehorizon2020–2040.Today’sinter-mediatesolutionsareclearlybasedonhybridelectricvehiclesandbatteryelectricvehicles.Theperformancesofthesesolu-tionsareputtingalotofquestionsonthenecessityofahydrogeneconomyforfuturetransportation.ThepaperdiscussesperformancesofhybridelectricvehiclesandbatteryelectricvehiclesincomparisonofthefuturehydrogenfuelcellbasedsystemswhicharenowinR&Dphaseandaverybeginningoffielddemonstration.2006ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.Keywords:Hydrogen;Roadtransport;Batteryelectricvehicles;Hybridelectricvehicles;Fuelcellelectricvehicles1.IntroductionTheelectricvehicleisanoptimumsolutionforurbanmobilityasitemitsnoexhaustfumes.Particularlyincitiesandinadverseclimaticconditions,traffic-generatedemissionsaredegradingairqualityuptothepointwherethephysicalhealthofthepopulationisdirectlythreatened.Severalcitieshavealreadyhadtoapplyrepeatedlydrastictrafficrestrictions.Theelectricvehicleisalsoideallysuitedtobeintegratedintonewtrafficmanagementconcepts,suchasautomaticrent-a-carsystemsandgoodsdistributioncentres,orsmallbusesforcity-centreservices.0196-8904/$-seefrontmatter2006ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2006.02.004*Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+3226292804.E-mailaddresses:Joeri.van.mierlo@vub.ac.be(J.VanMierlo),gmagget@vub.ac.be(G.Maggetto),plataire@vub.ac.be(Ph.Lataire).EnergyConversionandManagement47(2006)2748–2760fleets.Today,thereisaclearnecessitytogeneralisethesupportorganisedattheEuropeanlevelpreparingsothesteptowardshydrogenelectricvehicles.Theoilcrisisisclearlyinaninitialdevelopmentstepandisgoingtotakedramaticdimensions[1–3]callingforanurgentintroductionofalternativefuelsforroadtransportwithelectricityplayingamajorrole.How-evertheelectricity,storageremainsakeypoint.Thedevelopmentofalternativebatterysystemsshowsthepos-sibilityofmakingarealtechnicalandeconomicbreakthroughinashortormediumtermconsistentwithanimportantmarketdevelopment.Newbatterytypessuchashigh-temperaturebatteries,Nickel-metalhydridebatteries,andlithium-basedbatteriesarealreadyonthemarketorwillbeavailableinthecomingyears.Duetotheirhighenergydensity(70Wh/kgforNiMHand125Wh/kgforLicomparedto40Wh/kgforPband60forNiCd[4]),theywillofferunprecedentedvehicleranges,upto250kmandevenmuchmorethroughtheintroductionofrangeextenders.ApowerfulpublicnationalandEuropeansupportisstillnecessaryaswellasaneffectivemarketingapproach.Thelong-rangeormulti-missionelectricallydrivenvehiclewillbecomearealitythroughthedevelopmentofhybriddrivetrains.Hybridvehiclescombineelectricandotherdrivesystems,suchasinternalcombustionengines,gasturbinesandfuelcells.Themainadvantageofthiscombinationisthepermanentinteractionbetweenthehighlyefficientelectricsystemandthethermalengineorfuelcell.Heretoo,thepowerbatteriesorotherpowerboosterssuchassupercapacitorsplayakeyrole.Anumberofreliablevehiclesarecomingonthemarkettodaywithalargespectrumofhybridisationratios(fromstartandstopsystemstofullhybridpowertrain).Duetotheinbuiltdualfunctionhybridvehicleshavealongerrangethanbatteryelectricvehicles.Theycanoffertheoptionofrunningonelectricityaloneinurbanenvironmentssobeinglocallyzeroemissionatthistime.Someofthesevehiclescanbeplugged-inusingconventionalorrenewablesourcesofenergytoproduceelectricityinaneffectiveway.Thehybridtechnologyisnowparticularlyfavouredforheavy-dutyvehiclessuchascity-busesandleadsto20–30%reductioninbothenergyconsumptionandassociatedemissions.Severalstudieshaveinvestigatedthewell-to-wheelenergyconsumptionofvehiclesusingalternativefuelsordrivetrains[5–8].Severalpathwaystoproducehydrogenandotherfuelsandtouseitinseveralinternalcom-bustionengines,hybriddrivetrainsorfuelcellvehiclesarecomparedinthesestudies.Howeveracomparisonwithbatteryelectricvehiclesismostlyomittedinthesestudies.Theobjectiveofthispaperiscomparingthebatteryandhybridelectricvehicleswithconventionalvehiclesandfuelcellelectricvehiclesonthebasisofenergyconsumption.Thedualitybetweenbatteryelectricvehicleandfuelcellelectricvehiclewillbeextensivelydemonstratedinthefollowingsections.2.FactsrelatedwiththemobilityofpeopleandgoodsLetushighlightsomefactsaboutthemobilityofpeopleandgoods.2.1