戴炜栋-语言学讲课笔记

Chapter1:Introduction1.1Whatislinguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.IttriestoanswerthebasicquestionsWhatislanguage?Howdoeslanguagework?Whatdoalllanguageshaveincommon?(languageuniversal语言共同性)Whatrangeofvariation(变体)isfoundamonglanguages?(dialect.Mandarin普通话，accent)Whatmakeslanguagechange?Towhatextentaresocialclassdifferencesreflectedinlanguage?(sociolinguistics社会语言学)Howdoesachildacquirehismothertongue?(languageacquisition语言习得)1.1.2Thescopeoflinguistics（语言学研究的范围）branchesgenerallinguistics（普通语言学）phonetics（语音学）phonology（音系学）morphology（形态学）syntax（句法学）semantics（语义学）Example:boy:humanmaleyounganimategirl:humanfemaleyounganimatecomponentialanalysis语义成分分析pragmatics（语用学）Itiscoldhere.Pleaseclosethedoor.Iwanttoputonmoreclothes.Idon’twanttostayhere.sociolinguistics（社会语言学）psycholinguistics（心理语言学）appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）broadsense:广义,narrowsense:狭义=languageteaching1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics(语言学中一些重要的概念区分)1.1.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptive（规定与描写）Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydown(规定)rulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviourinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.1.1.3.2Synchronic（共时语言学）vs.diachronic（历时语言学）Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.1.1.3.3Speechandwriting（言语与文字）Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalwaysinventedbyitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.1.1.3.4Langueandparole（语言与言语）Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.（语言社区）Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.（actualuseoflanguage,concrete）Differences:1.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.(语言事件)2.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.（Saussure索绪尔）1.1.3.5Competenceandperformance(语言能力和语言运用)competenceandperformance,Chomsky（乔姆斯基）（aprof.atMIT）definescompetence（langue）astheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformance(parole)theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.WhileSaussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.1.1.3.6Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics（传统语法与现代语言学）《普通语言学教程》Saussure索绪尔Thedifferences:Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframeworkofthelanguagesusedbymankind.1.2Whatislanguage?1.2.1DefinitionsoflanguageLanguageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.(Sapir,1921)Languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.(Hall,1968)FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)Languageisasystemofarbitrary（任意的）vocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitrary（任意的）inthesensethatthereisnointrinsic（天生的，内在的）connectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor,forinstance,betweenthewordpenandthethingwewritewith.（ThisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellillustratedbyafamousquotationfromShakespeare'splayRomeoandJuliet:Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.）Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Thetermhumaninthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.1.2.2Designfeatures（识别特征)1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Productivity（多产性)3)Duality（二重性）4)Displacement（移位）5)Culturaltransmission（文化传递）Chapter2:Phonology2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage(语言的语音媒介)Speechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Manylanguagesintheworldtodayarebothwrittenandspoken.Butstatisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.Ofthe