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IntroductiontoLinguisticsIIForeignLanguageDepartmentEngineeringandTechnologyCollegeHubeiUniversityofTechnologyAimsofthislecture•Tounderstandsomebasictheories(suchasphonemetheories)onphonology;•Tounderstandtherelationshipsbetweenphoneticsandphonology;•TogetapictureofthedevelopmentofstudiesinphonologyConceptsofPhonology1.Definitionofphonology2.Differencebetweenphoneticsandphonology3.Phone/phoneme/allophone4.Minimalpair/Freevariation5.Complementarydistribution6.Assimilation7.SuprasegmentalsThePhonemeTheory1.DefinitionofPhonology•Phonology:–studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.–isthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.•Itaimsto“discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur”.1.DefinitionofPhonology•Phoneticsstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatis,howspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.•Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.2.Phonetics&phonology•2.1Differencebetweenphoneticsandphonology•2.2MinimalPair/FreeVariation•2.3Phone,PhonemesandAllophones•2.4ComplementaryDistribution2.Phonetics&phonology•2.1Thethreemajordifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonology:•1)Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.2.Phonetics&phonology•2)Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.;•Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Itisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.2.Phonetics&phonology•3)Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronounced.Eg.howthesetwo[t]sdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedintheword“tea”&“too”;•whilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.•Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot.•Theminimalpairstest•Thephonemetheory•Allophonicvariations•pitVSbit2.2Phonemiccontrast音位对立•Ifthephoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwodistinctivephonemes,e.g./p/&/b/in“pit”&“bit”,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.•But,•Howtoidentifytheminimalpair?2.2Minimalpair最小对比对•Crystal(1997:162)pointsout,“phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot”.•Asimplemethodologytodemonstratethisistotakeaword,replaceonesoundbyanother,andseewhetheradifferentmeaningresults.2.2Minimalpair最小对比对•Howtodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundwithanotherresultsinchangeofmeaning.•Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.•Aneasywaytodothisistofindminimalpair.2.2Minimalpair最小对比对•Forinstance,thewordtininEnglishconsistsofthreeseparatesounds,eachofwhichcanbegivenasymbolinaphonetictranscription,[tin].•Ifwereplace[t]by[d],adifferentwordresults:din.[t]and[d]arethusimportantsoundsinEnglish,becausetheyenableustodistinguishtinfromdin,tiefromdie,andmanymorewordpairs.•Thistechnique,calledtheMINIMALPAIRStest,canbeusedtofindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.•ForEnglish,itleadstotheidentificationofover40“important”units,calledPHONEMES.•PhonemesaretranscribedwiththeIPAsymbols,butwithinslantlinesinsteadofsquarebrackets–/o/,/s/,/d/,etc•Minimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,•e.g.beat-bit./i:/--/i/Threerequirementsforaminimalpair:1)thesamenumberofsegments;2)onephoneticdifferenceinthesameplace;3)differentmeaningslit-lip;phone-tone;pill-billbeat,bit,bet,boot,but,bite(minimalpairs)(aminimalset)SomeoftheminimalpairsforEnglishphonemes:vowelsSomeoftheminimalpairsforEnglishphonemes:consonantsFreevariation自由变体•Aphonemaysometimeshavefreevariants.•Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,i.e.thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thenthetwosoundsareinfreevariation.e.g.['aiðə]&['i:ðə]either2.3Phone,Phoneme,Allophone2.3.1Phone音素•Aphone--abasicunitofphoneticstudy,aminimalsoundsegmentthathumanvocalorganscanproduce.•Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.•Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Somedo,butsomedon’t.e.g.[s][t]seem,team(can)[t][t=]stop[st=ɔp][stɔp](can’t)•Conventionally,phonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets“[]”(phonetictranscription音素转写)Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Usuallyphonesofdifferentphonemesdistinguishmeaning.2.3.2Phoneme音位•Theword‘phoneme’simplyreferstoa‘unitofexplicitsoundcontrast’:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.–Byselectingonety