跨文化商务沟通chapter_2

Chapter2UnderstandingCulturesandTheirValuesLearningObjectivesBytheendofthischapter,youshouldbeabletoDefinecultureandculturalvalueIdentifytheingredientsandthecharacteristicsofcultureAppreciatethebasicvaluesofyourowncultureandthecultureofothersUnderstandhowculturaldifferencesinwork-relatedvaluesshapebehaviorCultureDefinedOriginofCultureCulture:derivedfromtheLatinword“colere”,whichcouldbetranslatedas“tobuild”,“tocarefor”,“toplant”or“tocultivate”.Thus,“culture”usuallyreferredtosomethingthatisderivedfromorcreatedbytheinterventionofhumans.FromIntellectualPerspectiveCultureis“theartsandothermanifestationsofhumanintellectualachievementregardedcollectively”.FromAnthropologicPerspectiveCultureis“thecustoms,civilizations,andachievementsofaparticulartimeorpeople”.EdwardTylorCulture…isthatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,belief,art,law,morals,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.EdwardSapirCulturemaybedefinedaswhatasocietydoesandthinks.Languageisaparticularwayofthought.KroeberandKluckhohnCultureconsistsofpatterns,explicitandimplicit,ofandforbehavioracquiredandtransmittedbysymbols,constitutingthedistinctiveachievementofhumangroups,includingtheirembodimentsinartifacts.GeertHofstedeThecollectiveprogrammingofthemindwhichdistinguishesthemembersofonecategoryofpeoplefromanother.Cultureis“softwareofthemind”.SamovarandPorterCultureisthedepositofknowledge,experience,beliefs,values,attitudes,meanings,hierarchies,religion,notionsoftime,roles,spatialrelations,conceptsoftheuniverse,andmaterialobjectsandpossessionsacquiredbyagroupofpeopleinthecourseofgenerationsthroughindividualandgroupstriving.EdwardT.HallCultureisthetotalaccumulationofbeliefs,customs,values,behaviors,institutionsandcommunicationpatternsthatareshared,learnedandpasseddownthroughthegenerationsinanidentifiablegroupofpeople.IngredientsofCultureartifactsconceptsbehaviorCulturemaybeclassifiedbythreelargecategoriesofelements—AlmanetandAlwan(1982)ElementsofCultureartifacts(whichincludesitemsrangingfromarrowheadstohydrogenbombs,magiccharmstoantibioticstoelectriclights,andchariotstojetplanes);concepts(whichincludesuchbeliefsorvaluesystemsasrightorwrong,Godandman,ethics,andthegeneralmeaningoflife);behavior(whichreferstotheactualpracticeofconceptsorbeliefs).CharacteristicsofCultureCharacteristicsTransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationCoherentandLearnedinterrelatedEthnocentricSubjecttochangeSelectiveValueDefinedFromIntellectualPerspectiveOne’sprinciplesorstandards,one’sjudgmentofwhatisvaluableorimportantinlife.GeertHofstedeAbroadtendencytoprefercertainstatesofaffairsoverothers.ClydeKluckhohnAconception,explicitorimplicit,distinctiveofanindividualorcharacteristicofagroup,ofthedesirablewhichinfluencestheselectionfromavailablemodes,meansandendsofaction.ValueSystemAvaluesystemrepresentswhatisexpectedorhopedfor,requiredorforbidden.Itisnotareportofactualconductbutisthesystemofcriteriabywhichconductisjudgedandsanctionsapplied.TheCoreofCultureSymbolsheroesritualsvaluesCultureislikeanicebergCultureisoursoftwareCultureislikethewaterafishswimsin.SymbolsSymbolsreferstowords,gestures,pictures,orobjectsthatcarryaparticularmeaningonlyrecognizedbythosewhosharetheculture.Heroes“Heroes”isatermusedtoindicatepersons,ordinaryorfamous,realorimaginary,aslongastheypossesscharacteristicsthatarehighlyprizedandworshipedinaculture.RitualsRitualsarethosecollectiveactivitiesthatareconsideredsociallyessentialwithinaculture.ValuesValuesaresocialprinciples,goals,orstandardsacceptedbypersonsinaculture.CategoriesofValuesvaluesUniversalvaluesCultural-specificvaluesIndividualvaluesHowdowegetourvalues?Fromone’sfamilyFromschooleducationteachersFromone’speersFromsocietyatlargeHowtofindoutaboutpeople’svalues?Frompeople’sbehaviorFromwhatpeoplesayaboutthemselvesFrommyths,talesofheroes,andritualsFromfolktales,proverbs,sayingsTaxonomiesusedtoanalyzevaluesKluckholn&StrodetbeckValueOrientationsHofstede&BondCulturalDimensionsTrompenaarsValueDimensionsShalomSchwartzValueinventoryEdwardHallHigh-andlow-contextOrientationKluckhohn&Strodtbeck’svalueorientationValueorientationHumannatureRelationshiptonatureSenseoftimeActivitySocialrelationshipsValueorientationVariationsHumannatureevilMixed/neutralgoodRelationshiptonaturesubjugationharmonymasterySenseoftimepastpresentfutureactivitybeingBeing-and-becomingdoingSocialrelationshiphierarchygroupindividualBasicHumanNatureGoodPeopletrusteachotherEvilLackoftrustMixed-NeutralGenerallytrustingbutneedtobecautiousandprotectselfRelationtoNatureSubjugationAcceptnature;don’ttrytochangeitHarmonyCoexistwithnatureMasteryChangenaturethroughtechnologywhennecessaryordesirableTimeOrientationPastEmphasizestraditionPresentFocusesonshort-termFutureEmphasizeslong-termActivityOrientationDoingEmphasisonaction,achievement,learningBeingEmphasisonsocialstatusandpositionBeing-and-becomingNoonewillbethesametomorrowastodaySocialRelationshipsIndividualisticPeopledefinethemselvesthroughpersonalcharacteristicsandachievementGroup-orientedPeo