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RacisminAmerica:AliveandWell“Ademocraticsocietyshouldrecognizethateveryindividualisunique,differentfromeveryother.Regardlessoflikenessesordifferences,everymanandwomanisequaltoeveryotherintherightstolife,libertyandthepursuitofhappiness.”Morethan2centurieshaspassedsinceJeffersonwrotethesewords,buthavingthemonpaperdoesnotmeanthattheyareguaranteed.ThomasJefferson(1743–1826)the3rdPresidentoftheUS(1801–1809),theprincipalauthoroftheDeclarationofIndependence(1776),andoneofthemostinfluentialFoundingFathers.Racismisthebeliefintheinherentsuperiorityofaparticularrace.Itdeniesthebasicequalityofhumankindandcorrelatesabilitywithphysicalcomposition.Thisoftenleadstothebeliefthatsomepeople(races)shouldbegovernedbyothers.Racismisanattitudethatpromptshatred,prejudice,anddiscrimination.TheyoungAfricanAmericanboysarecleaningtheolderwhitemalesshoesIntheBlackHillsofSouthDakota,standsthenationalmemorial,MountRushmore,createdbyGutzonBorglum.Thismagnificentrockcarvingdepictsthe60-foothighfacesoffourgreatU.S.Presidents:GeorgeWashington,ThomasJefferson,TheodoreRooseveltandAbrahamLincolnThehistoryoftheUSistoagreatextentanarrativeofrelationsbetweenpeopleculturallyandpoliticallygroupedintoraces.Ontheonehand,theUnitedStatesenjoysthebenefitsofadiversesociety;ontheotherithasthenegativeeffectsofnotfulfillingtheAmericancreedoffreedomandequalityofopportunity.Attheverybeginning,thelandofopportunity,prosperity,andfreedomsspelledoutintheConstitutionwasnotfullyunderstoodincolonialAmerica.Ifeveryhumanbeingwasbornwithfundamentalrightsthatnogovernmentcanlegallyalterortakeaway,theneveryhumanbeingisentitledbylawtohavehisorherrightstoberespectedandprotected.Howisitthatwomenweredeniedtheprivilegeofvoting?Howisitthatthecourtandthegovernmenttreatedimmigrantsandotherminoritygroupsdifferently?TheConstitution,includingtheBillofRights,doesnotincludethewordraceorwoman.ButitwaswellunderstoodandpracticedthattherewasaraceexceptiontotheConstitution,anditlastedfornearlytwohundredyearsaftertheConstitutionwasratified.TherewasforIndians,immigrants,slaves,andwomenlittlesheltertobeofferedintheframeworkofthecountry.RacismisanintegralpartofAmericanculture.Evenso,notallAmericansweretolerantofracism.DuringtheAmericanRevolution,somecolonistsspokeoutagainstslavery.Upuntil1860,manyabolitionists,(FrederickDouglas,WilliamLloydGarrisonandJohnBrown)continuedtoringtheBellforlibertyforall.FrederickDouglass(Feb.14,1818–Feb.20,1895)Americanabolitionist,women’ssuffragist,editor,orator,author,statesmanandreformer.In1872,hebecamethefirstAfricanAmericannominatedasaVicePresidentialcandidate,runningontheEqualRightsPartyticketwithVictoriaWoodhull,thefirstwomantorunforPresidentoftheUnitedStates.Between1831and1865,TheLiberator,whichwasfoundedbyWilliamLloydGarrison,denouncedslaveryasacompromisewithtyranny?Garrisonwassuedforlibel(诽谤罪),convicted,andfined,andimprisonedforhisanti-slaverysentiments.WilliamLloydGarrison(Dec.12,1805–May24,1879)wasaprominentAmericanabolitionist,journalist,andsocialreformer,bestknownastheeditoroftheradicalabolitionistnewspaper,TheLiberator,andasoneofthefoundersoftheAmericanAnti-SlaverySociety,hepromotedimmediateemancipationofslavesintheUnitedStates.In1857,theDredScottCasewasdecidedbytheUnitedStatedSupremeCourt.ThisrulingdeclaredafederallawthatprohibitedslaveryinAmericanterritoriesoutsidetheSouthtobeunconstitutional.DredScott(1799–1858),aslavewhosuedunsuccessfullyforhisfreedomintheinfamousDredScottvsSandfordcaseof1857.HiscasewasbasedonthefactthatheandhiswifeHarrietwereslaves,buthadlivedinstatesandterritorieswhereslaverywasillegal,includingIllinoisandMinnesota(whichwasthenpartoftheWisconsinTerritory).TheUSSupremeCourtruledseventotwoagainstScott,findingthatneitherhe,noranypersonofAfricanancestry,couldclaimcitizenshipintheUS,andthatthereforeScottcouldnotbringsuitinfederalcourtunderdiversityofcitizenshiprules.In1866,thefirstCivilRightsActwaspassedthatgaveallBlackscitizenship;guaranteedequallegalrightstoallcitizens;madeitillegalforstatestopasslawstreatingpeopledifferentlybecauseofraceorformerslavestatus;andgaveFederalofficialsthepowertoenforcetheact.Atfirst,theactwasvetoedbyPresidentAndrewJohnsonbutCongresscanceledhisvetoanditbecamelaw.InordertoprotecttheCivilRightsActof1866,theFederallegislaturesquicklyaddedtheFourteenthAmendment.TheFifteenthAmendmentaddedin1870,reaffirmedtherighttovotetoallcitizensregardlessofraceorformeremploymentstatus.Inthemid1870’s,violenceagainstBlackswaswidespread.Manywerebeatenatvotingplaces,andelectedofficialswereterrorizedandormurdered.ThosewhowereinCongressandfavoredequalityforallcitizensbegantochangetheirproactiveattitudetowardsracialjustice.NotonlydidCongressturnitsbackonsupportofracialequality,sodidtheSupremeCourt.Ina1876rulingfromanappealcaseofthreeconvictedmurderers,theSupremeCourtreverseditsinterpretationoftheFourteenthAmendment.Thestateshadauthoritytograntordenytherighttoassemble.Thecourtwhite-supremacistsdeniedblacksequalrights.Thispushedblacksdeeperintoeconomicdependencewhichalsomadeitdifficultforthemtodefendtheirpoliticalandlegalrights.Ema