The Universe

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1Passage5TheUniverse'sInvisibleHandByChristopherJ.ConseliceDarkenergy(暗能量)doesmorethanhurryalongtheexpansionoftheuniverse.ItalsohasastrangleholdontheshapeandspacingofgalaxiesWhattookussolong?Onlyin1998didastronomersdiscoverwehadbeenmissingnearlythreequartersofthecontentsoftheuniverse,theso-calleddarkenergy--anunknownformofenergythatsurroundseachofus,tuggingatuseversoslightly,holdingthefateofthecosmosinitsgrip,buttowhichwearealmosttotallyblind.Someresearchers,tobesure,hadanticipatedthatsuchenergyexisted,buteventheywilltellyouthatitsdetectionranksamongthemostrevolutionarydiscoveriesin20th-centurycosmology.Notonlydoesdarkenergyappeartomakeupthebulkoftheuniverse,butitsexistence,ifitstandsthetestoftime,willprobablyrequirethedevelopmentofnewtheoriesofphysics.Scientistsarejuststartingthelongprocessoffiguringoutwhatdarkenergyisandwhatitsimplicationsare.Onerealizationhasalreadysunkin:althoughdarkenergybetrayeditsexistencethroughitseffectontheuniverseasawhole,itmayalsoshapetheevolutionoftheuniverse'sinhabitants--stars,galaxies,galaxyclusters.Astronomersmayhavebeenstaringatitshandiworkfordecadeswithoutrealizingit.暗能量不仅仅会加速宇宙膨胀。它也对星系的形状和间隔有所束缚。是什么让我们花费了那么长时间?直到1998年宇航员才发现我们几乎忽略了宇宙中四分之三的能源,所谓的暗能量—我们周围一种不为人知的能量,轻轻将我们拉住,掌控了宇宙的命运。但是,对此我们一无所知。事实上,一些研究者早已预料到,这种能量是存在的,但是,他们将告知你,这是20世纪宇宙学上革命性的发现。暗能量不仅是宇宙的一大组成部分,而且如果能经受时间的考验,它的存在很可能需要物理学最新理论发展来作为支撑。科学家们正着手研究暗能量的本质和影响,其中一项发现是:暗能量通过对整个宇宙的影响暴露了它的存在,它也可以使宇宙中星系,银河系产生变化。宇航员们数几十年来也许一直致力于它的影响,而忽略了它的存在。2Ironically,theverypervasivenessofdarkenergyiswhatmadeitsohardtorecognize.Darkenergy,unlikematter,doesnotclumpinsomeplacesmorethanothers;byitsverynature,itisspreadsmoothlyeverywhere.Whateverthelocation--beitinyourkitchenorinintergalacticspace--ithasthesamedensity,about10-26kilogrampercubicmeter,equivalenttoahandfulofhydrogenatoms.Allthedarkenergyinoursolarsystemamountstothemassofasmallasteroid,makingitanutterlyinconsequentialplayerinthedanceoftheplanets.Itseffectsstandoutonlywhenviewedovervastdistancesandspansoftime.讽刺的是,暗能量无处不在,使人很难发现。暗能量不同于物质,它不是在空间中某处群聚成团,而是依据其特有的性质均匀地分散在各个地方。无论是你家的厨房里还是星系间,它的密度都一样,约每立方米10-26公斤,相当于几个氢原子的重量。太阳系里所有的暗能量相当于一个小行星块,所以在行星的运行中,它是微不足道的角色。只有在遥远的地方长时间观察,暗能量的影响才突出。SincethedaysofAmericanastronomerEdwinHubble,observershaveknownthatallbutthenearestgalaxiesaremovingawayfromusatarapidrate.Thisrateisproportionaltodistance:themoredistantagalaxyis,thefasteritsrecession.Suchapatternimpliedthatgalaxiesarenotmovingthroughspaceintheconventionalsensebutarebeingcarriedalongasthefabricofspaceitselfstretches[seeMisconceptionsabouttheBigBang,byCharlesH.LineweaverandTamaraM.Davis;ScientificAmerican,March2005].Fordecades,astronomersstruggledtoanswertheobviousfollow-upquestion:Howdoestheexpansionratechangeovertime?Theyreasonedthatitshouldbeslowingdown,astheinwardgravitationalattractionexertedbygalaxiesononeanothershouldhavecounteractedtheoutwardexpansion.自从美国天文学家爱丁文哈伯那个时代开始,研究人员就已经知道那些除了最近的星系之外,其他星系都在以很快的速率远离我们。速率与距离是成比例的,离我们越远的星系,移动越快。这暗示了在传统的意义上,星系没有从空间移动,而是顺应着空间本身的结构延伸着〔参见CharlesH.Lineweaver和TamaraM.Davis在《科学美国人》2005年3月号上撰写的〈你也误会了大霹雳〉〕数十年来,科学3家努力地回答明显的随之而来的问题。膨胀的速率会随着时间如何改变呢?他们的推断是当彼此星系对内部的外有引力施以影响,那么外部扩张就会受到阻碍,宇宙的膨胀速率就会减慢。Thefirstclearobservationalevidenceforchangesintheexpansionrateinvolveddistantsupernovae,massiveexplodingstarsthatcanbeusedasmarkersofcosmicexpansion,justaswatchingdriftwoodletsyoumeasurethespeedofariver.Theseobservationsmadeclearthattheexpansionwasslowerinthepastthantodayandisthereforeaccelerating.Morespecifically,ithadbeenslowingdownbutatsomepointunderwentatransitionandbeganspeedingup[seeSurveyingSpace-timewithSupernovae,byCraigJ.Hogan,RobertP.KirshnerandNicholasB.Suntzeff;ScientificAmerican,January1999,andFromSlowdowntoSpeedup,byAdamG.RiessandMichaelS.Turner;ScientificAmerican,February2004].Thisstrikingresulthassincebeencross-checkedbyindependentstudiesofthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiationby,forexample,theWilkinsonMicrowaveAnisotropyProbe(WMAP).第一个膨胀速率变化的明显观测证据是涉及遥远的超新星的。大量爆炸的恒星可以被当做宇宙膨胀的标志,就像我们盯着浮木可以测量水速。观测结果清楚显示过去的膨胀速度比现在慢,因此它现在正在加速。更确切的说,宇宙膨胀确实曾经一度变慢,但在某个时刻经历一段过渡期后,便开始加速了。〔参见CraigJ.Hogan,RobertP.KirshnerandNicholasB.Suntzeff撰写的〈测量超新星时空〉和撰写的〈从减速到加速〉〕。这个显著的成果已经被其他关于宇宙微波背景辐射的个别研究反复检验过了,例如,威金森微波异向性探测器(WMAP)Darkenergymaybethekeylinkamongseveralaspectsofgalaxyformationthatusedtoappearunrelated.Onepossibleconclusionisthatdifferentlawsofgravityapplyon4supergalacticscalesthanonlesserones,sothatgalaxies'gravitydoesnot,infact,resistexpansion.Butthemoregenerallyacceptedhypothesisisthatthelawsofgravityareuniversalandthatsomeformofenergy,previouslyunknowntoscience,opposesandoverwhelmsgalaxies'mutualattraction,pushingthemaparteverfaster.Althoughdarkenergyisinconsequentialwithinourgalaxy(letaloneyourkitchen),itaddsuptothemostpowerfulforceinthecosmos.暗能量是连接曾看似不相关的星系的主要纽带一项可能的结果是,不同的重力定律应用于超星系范畴,而不是较小星系范畴,所以星系的重力实际上不用抑制膨胀。但是人们更普遍接受的假设是,重力定律是普遍适用的,不过一些在科学界前所未有的能量形态,足以反抗并压制星系间的相互吸引力,促使它们分离的更快。尽管暗能量在我们的星系里无足轻重(更别提你家厨房了),但是它的总量却是宇宙中最强大的力量。CosmicSculptorAsastronomershaveexploredthisnewphenomenon,theyhavefoundthat,inadditiontodeterminingtheoverallexpansionrateoftheuniverse,darke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