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GoalOrientationandGoalSetting:PredictingPerformancebyIntegratingFour-FactorGoalOrientationTheorywithGoalSettingProcessesDavidJ.Radosevich*MontclairStateUniversityNewJersey,U.S.A.MarkR.Allyn**MontclairStateUniversityNewJersey,U.S.A.SeokhwaYun***SeoulNationalUniversitySeoul,KoreaAbstractThisstudyintegratedfour-factorgoalorientationtheorywithgoalsettingtheory,tworelatedbutseparateresearchstreams.335undergraduatebusinessstudentsparticipatedbyindicatingtheirgoalorientations,self-efficacy,andself-setgoalforthesemester.Attheendofthesemester,theirfinalclassgradewasrecorded.ResultsfromtheLISRELmediationalmodelindicatedthataftercontrollingforability,thefourgoalorientationvariablesdifferentiallyinfluencedself-efficacy,self-SeoulJournalofBusinessVolume13,Number1(June2007)*Mainauthor,AssistantProfessor,SchoolofBusiness,MontclairStateUniversity([e-mail]).**Coauthor,AssistantProfessor,SchoolofBusiness,MontclairStateUniversity([e-mail]).***Coauthor,AssistantProfessor,CollegeofBusinessAdministration,SeoulNationalUniversity([e-mail]).ThisstudywassupportedbytheInstituteofManagementResearchofSeoulNationalUniversity.setgoals,andperformance.Further,self-efficacypositivelyinfluencedgoalsandgoalspositivelyinfluencedperformance.Theintegrationofafour-factormodelwithgoalsettingprocessesservedasausefulmodeltopredictacademicperformance.Keywords:goalsetting,goalorientation,self-efficacyINTRODUCTIONOneofthemostwidelysupportedtheoriesfromthefieldoforganizationalbehaviorisgoalsettingtheory.Hundredsofstudieshavesupportedthebasicpremisethatindividualscommittedtospecific,difficultgoalsandwhoareprovidedfeedbackwillhavehigherperformancethanthosewitheasyorvaguegoals(Kanfer1991;LockeandLatham1990,2002).Thefocusingoalsettingtheoryisonmotivationalprocessestowardtheattainmentofperformanceoutcomes,andtheextantliteraturehasconsistentlyfoundthatperformanceisafunctionofbothabilityandmotivation(LockeandLatham1990).Recently,researchershaveexploredthedeterminantsthatcauseindividualstosethighergoals(e.g.,Diefendorf2004;PhillipsandGully1997).Inparticular,effortshavebeenmadetointegrateindividualdifferencevariableswithmotivationconstructs.Goalorientationtheory,whichhasitsoriginsineducationalpsychology,hasreceivedattentionbyorganizationalbehaviorresearcherswhoexamineself-regulatoryprocesses(e.g.,PhillipsandGully1997;Radosevich,Vaidyanathan,Yeo,andRadosevichetal.2004;Seijts,Latham,Tasa,andLatham2004).Goalorientationreferstothegoalsindividualsimplicitlypursuewhileattainingperformanceoutcomes(DweckandLeggett1988).Theoristsoverthepastfewdecadeshaveproposedatwo-(Dweck1986;DweckandLeggett1988),three-(e.g.,ElliotandHarackiewicz1996;MiddletonandMidgley1997;VandeWalle1997),andmostrecentlyfour-factormodel(ElliotandMcGregor2001)ofgoalorientation.Althoughgoalorientationtheoryandgoalsettingtheoryseemtoberelated,therehasnotbeenenoughefforttointegratethesetworesearchstreams.Thus,theprimarypurposeofthisstudyistoexaminetheeffectsofthefourgoalorientationconstructsonself-efficacy,self-setgoals,and22SeoulJournalofBusinessperformance.THEORETICALMODELThehypothesizedlinksinthetheoreticalmodelarepresentedinfigure1.Thetheoreticalbackgroundandrelationshipsamongtheconstructsarepresentedbelow.GoalSettingProcessesSelf-regulationtheories(e.g.,Bandura1986;CarverandScheier1981;Klein1989;LockeandLatham1990)stresstheimportanceofcognitiveandbehavioralfactorsindeterminingmotivation.Attheircoreisthepersonalgoalconstruct,whichinfluencesindividuals’motivationalprocesses(AustinandVancouver1996;LockeandLatham1990).BasedonKurtLewin’sseminalworkonlevelsofaspiration(Lewinetal.Sears1944),researchershaveexaminedtheideathatmotivationislinkedtoself-regulation.Goalsettingtheory(LockeandLatham1990)highlightstheimportanceofgoalsbysuggestingthattheyaffectbehaviorinseveralways:(1)directingattentiontoatask,GoalOrientationandGoalSetting23Figure1.HypothesizedIntegratedModelofGoalOrientationTheoryandGoalSettingProcesses.(2)mobilizingon-taskeffort,(3)developingtaskstrategies,(4)encouragingtaskpersistence,and(5)settinglevelsoftaskproficiency.Thefindingthattheadoptionofhighergoalsleadstohigherperformancehasbeendemonstratedinover500empiricalstudies(e.g.,Latham,Locke,andFassina2002)aswellasmeta-analysesinthegoalsettingliterature(Tubbs1986;Wood,Mento,andLocke1987);individualsassignedchallenginggoalsoutperformthoseassignedeasyorvaguegoalsby0.82standarddeviations,onaverage(Tubbs1986).Itisimportanttonotethatmoststudieshavetreatedindividualdifferencevariablesasmoderatorsinthegoalsettingprocessasopposedtopredictorsofself-setgoals(PhillipsandGully1997).Anadditionalconcerninvolvesthetypeofgoalusedinresearch.Specifically,mostresearchhasexaminedassignedgoalsasopposedtoself-setgoals.Thus,althoughafewstudies(e.g.,Diefendorff2004;PhillipsandGully1997)haveexaminedindividualdifferencevariables(e.g.,needforachievement,locusofcontrol,two-factorgoalorientationtheory)aspredictorsofself-setgoals,thereisaneedtoexamineavarietyofindividualdifferencevariablesthatinfluencethelevelofself-setgoalsinthego