cooperative-principle合作原则

CooperativePrinciplesandTVseriesOutlinePartone:HerbertPaulGriceParttwo:CooperativePrinciplePartthree:TVseries(theWalkingDeadS05E08)HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988)1.aBritishphilosopheroflanguage2.LogicandConversationin19753.Histheoryofimplicatureisoneofthemostimportantandinfluentialcontributionstocontemporarypragmatics.CooperativePrincipleMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.(H.P.Grice,LogicandConversation,1975)Quality1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要说自知是虚假的话。2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要说缺乏足够证据的话。Example“Oh,haveyouhadacold?”(someoneclearlycaughtabadlycold.Whenyousaythis,youdon’tfollowthequalitymaxim.)Quantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange)使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.要使你的话语比所要求的信息更充分。ExampleJane:whendidyougraduatefromcollege?John:manyyearsago.(Johnmustknowthetimewhenhegraduatedfromcollege,buthedidnotsayit.Here,Johnisbeingunderinformative.)RelevanceMakesurethatwhateveryousayisrelevanttotheconversationathand.(确保你说的任何话都与谈话主题相关)ExampleJane:Let‘sgotowatchthemovieFast&Furious7tonight.John:Ihavealotofhomeworktodo.(Obviously,John'sresponsehasnoconnectionwithJane'srequest.Thelackofrelevanceisattheliterallevel,infact,atandeeplevel,JohndoesgiveJaneasufficientreplay.)MannerBeclearandlucid:1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免含混不清;2.Avoidambiguity.避免歧义3.Bebrief.要简短（避免冗长）4.Beorderly.要有序Example(1)Openthedoor.(2)Walkuptothedoor,putthekeyintothelock,turnthekeyclockwisetwiceandpush.(Comparedthefirstone,thesecondissurelylong,unusualwayofgivingthecommand.)Floutingofthemaxims1.byviolation(说话人可以悄悄地、不加声张地违反一条准则,自己明明知道是不真实的话,)(e.g.:totelllies.)Note:Grice:“quietly”violatingamaxim-theseviolationsmighthampercommunicationbuttheydonotleadtoimplicatures.2.byoptingout(说话人宣布不遵守合作原则以及有关准则)(saying“Idon’twanttotalkaboutit”)note:这种违反准则的情况不会产生会话含义，只是表明听话人不愿继续进行交际而已.3.byfulfillingoneattheexpenseanotherowingtoaconflictofmaxims.(面临一种“冲突”的情况,即为了维护一条准则而不得不违反另一条准则)4.violateoneoftheprinciplesopenly.(也就是说话人知道自己违反了一条准则，同时他还想让听话人知道他违反了一条准则)Note:“openly”floutingamaxim-leadtoimplicatures.ImplicatureItisakindofextrameaningthatisnotcontainedintheutterance.Whenanyofthemaximsisblatantlyviolatedandthelistenerknowsthatitisbeingviolated,aparticularconversationalimplicaturearises.Twotypesofconversationalimplicature(1.)Generalizedconversationalimplicature(一般性会话含义)(不需要特殊语境就能推导出来的含义)John:howdidMarydointhemathexam?Jane:Marydidfine.(2.)Particularizedconversationalimplicature(特殊性会话含义)(需要依赖特殊语境才能推导出来的含义)A:Whatonearthhashappenedtotheroastbeef?B:Thedogislookingveryhappy.Perhapsthedoghaseatentheroastbeef”.(也许那条狗把烤牛肉吃了)就是“Thedogislookingveryhappy”的特殊性会话含义。ScalarimplicatureScalarimplicature:anadditionalmeaningofthenegativeofanyvaluehigheronascalethantheoneuttered.Janelikessomeofthefood.(Janedoesnotlikeallofthefood.)Here,sayingsomeofthefood,Janecreatedanimplicaturethatwhatshesaysdoesnotmeanshelikesallofthefood.ConventionalimplicatureConventionalimplicature(规约含义)：anadditionalunstatedmeaningassociatedwiththeuseofaspecificword.marryispoorbuthappy．(“poorbuthappy”impliesacontrastbetweenpoorandhappy.so“contrast”isaConventionalimplicatureof“but”)Propertiesofimplicature1.Cancellability(可取消性)如果在原初的某一话语(注意:格赖斯认为“含义”不是由句子而是由话语推导出来的)上附加上某些前提,某种会话含义就会被取消。Johnhasthreecats.(附加上一个if-从句,话语的含义就取消了)Propertiesofimplicature2.Indeterminacy(不确定性)具有单一意义的词语在不同的场合可以产生不同的含义。John'samachine.(“机器”这个词语的会话含义可以是:约翰是冷漠的,或能干的,或不停地工作,或不会动脑筋,或这些含义都有,只有依据具体的语境,才能确定话语究竟是哪一种含义。)3.Calculability(可推导性)(itcanbeinferredorcalculatedaccordingtothecooperativeprinciple)例如,“王军霞是东方神鹿”。说“王军霞是东方神鹿”这句话的会话含义是:“王军霞是跑得最快的长跑运动员.”THANKYOU