语用学-5--Conversational-implicature

ConversationalimplicatureDivergenceinmeaning:FormaldevicesVS.naturalLFormalistVS.informalistConstructanidealLInadequteattentiontothenatureandimportanceoftheconditionsgoverningconversationImplicatureWhatissaidwhatisimplied—ConventionalimplicatureNon-conventionalimplicatureGeneralprincipleofdiscourseCPRationalcooperativeSubmaxims(Kant)Aesthtic,social,moralSeetalkingasaspecialcaseofpurposiverationalbehaviortransactionsRationalist:reasonabletofollow,shouldnotabandonObserve:generalizedFail:particularized1.cancellability2.non-detachability3.non-conventionality4.non-truthconditionality5.calculabilityIllocutionaryforce包括conversationalimplicature吗？1.Whatisanimplicature?E.g.A:Ihaveafourteenyearoldson.B:Well,that'sallright.A:Ialsohaveadog.B:Oh,I'msorry.Inwhatcontextdoesthisdialogueoccur?PleaseexplainthemeaningthatBintendstoconvey.Howisitpossibleforthespeakerandthehearertounderstandeachother?Bmeansmorethanwhatheorshesays,butAcanunderstanditorinterpretitwellinthecontext.Howdoesthishappen?Howdoesthehearergetfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.ExplanationsfromtruthsemanticsSomephilosophersorlogiciansconcludethatnaturallanguageisinadequatefortheprecise,logicalrepresentationofmeaning,and.soitisnecessarytodeviseideallanguagestosolvetheproblem.Thusaccordingtologicalsemantics,understandingthemeaningofnaturallanguageisunderstandingalogicalrelationshipbetweentwopropositions.Thelogicalrepresentationofconjunction:p&qThislogicalexpressionstandsfor:ifpistrueandqistrue,thenp&qistrue.Ifeitherporqisnottrue(i.e.false),thentheconjunctionofpandqisnecessarilyfalse.E.g.TheduckranuptoMary(p)andlickedher(q).Reasonable??Butthisisnotalwaystrueinreallifeasintheaboveexample.Wheneverp&qistrue,itlogicallyfollowsthatq&pistrue:TheducklickedMary(q)andranuptoher(p).Grice(1975)publishedanarticleLogicandconversationwhichraisesthequestionhowitispossibleforatheorytodealwiththefactthatnaturallanguageutterancesdonotconveythesamemeaningthatthecorrespondinglogicalpropositionwould.Hemadeanattempttoofferasolution:Thephilosopher'sassumptionthatnaturallanguageexpressionsdivergefromtheformaldevicesofthelogiciansiswrong.Inotherwords,naturallanguageexpressionscannotbefullyexplainedbyformallogic.ExplanationsfromGrice--whypeoplemakeaproposition(p)butoftenmeanmorethanthat?syntacticorsemanticrulesoflanguages—enough??rulesandprinciplesofconversation—alsoneeded!!1.2DefiningimplicaturesWhatisintendedbythespeaker,ortheintendedspeakermeaning.Invisiblemeaningorimplicitmeaning.Additionalconveyedmeaningthatismorethanwhatwordsmean.Whatiscommunicatedincontext,notthemeaningofwords,phrasesorsentences.2.Grice'stheoryofconversationalimplicatureTwocomponents:1)meaning-nn2)TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)Thefirsttheoryofmeaning-nnisregardedasatheoryofcommunicationwhichmightbeachievedintheabsenceofanyconventionalmeansforexpressingtheintendedmessage.Thesecondtheoryisessentiallyatheoryabouthowpeopleuselanguage.2.1Meaning-nnNaturalmeaningandnon-naturalmeaning(meaning-nn)Grice'sanalysisofmeaningismainlypresentedinhisarticles,Meaning,Utterer'sMeaningandIntention,andMeaningRevisited(1978,1981,1989)e.g.Thesespotsmeanmeasles.Cloudsmeantitisgoingtorain.Hisgesturemeantthathewasfedup.Hiscoughmeantthatthesupervisorhadcometotheclassroombuilding.Questions:Isthereanydifferencebetweenthemeaningoftheverbmeanina)andb)andthatoftheverbmeaninc)andd)?Naturalmeaning:factiveornotinvolvingintentionentailmentNon-naturalmeaning:non-factiveandintentioninvolvedForGrice,meaninghastobeinterpretedintermsofthehearerandsomeaningandintentionwerebroughttogetherinhisanalysis.ThisisthecrucialpointinunderstandingGrice'stheoryandSearle'sone.Searle'stheory:meaning=intentionrepresentedbythespeaker(intentiontorepresent)Grice'stheory:meaning=intentioninterpretedbythehearer(intentiontocommunicate)SowhatisanintentionbyGrice'sinterpretation?Grice'smechanismforpragmaticinferenceXintendstobringaboutaresponseonthepartofYbygettingYtorecognizethatXintendstobringaboutthatresponse;YdoesrecognizeX'sintention,andistherebygivensomesortofreasontorespondjustasXintendshimto.E.g.Itiscoldinhere.Setting:inaclassroomSpeaker:teacherhearer:studentAnalysis:fromSearle?Grice?ThespeakerXintendstomakearequestofthehearerYtoclosethedoor.(Searle)ThehearerYisabletorecognizethisintentionbydoingtheactionofclosingthedoor.(Grice)1)JohnlikesMary.2)EvenJohnlikesMary.whatissaid,truthconditionalwhatisimplicated,non-truthconditionalinferencesEvenmeansthatthecasewillbemorethanmightbeexpected.Context-independent?E.g.HeisanEnglishman;heis,therefore,brave.Thereforemeansthatwhatfollowswillbetheconsequenceofwhatprecedes.Adverbs:already,also,barely,either,only,scarcely,still,too,yetConnectives:but,nevertheless,so,therefore,yetImplicativeverbs:bother,condescend,continue,fail,manage,stopSubordinatingconjunctions:although,despite(thefactthat),eventhoughtwodifferentsortsofimplicature:conventionalimplicatureandconversationalimplicatureConventionalimplicat