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11.Pragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageinuse.Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeaker(orwriter)andinterpretedbyalistener(orreader).PragmaticsisthestudyofspeakermeaningPragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaningPragmaticsisthestudyoftheexpressionofrelativedistance.Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.2.Syntaxisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticforms,howtheyarearrangedinsequence,andwhichsequencesarewell-formed.3.Semanticsisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandentitiesintheworld;thatis,howwordsliterallyconnecttothings.4.Deixis指示语isatechnicalterm(fromGreek)foroneofthemostbasicthingswedowithutterances.Itmeans‘pointing’vialanguage.Anylinguisticformusedtoaccomplishthis‘pointing’iscalledadeicticexpression.Deicticexpressionsarealsosometimescalledindexicals.Theyareamongthefirstformstobespokenbyveryyoungchildrenandcanbeusedtoindicatepeopleviapersondeixis(suchas,‘me’,‘you’),orlocationviaspatialdeixis(suchas‘here’,‘there’),ortimeviatemporaldeixis(suchas‘now’,‘then’).5.Proximalterms近指aretypicallyinterpretedintermsofthespeaker’slocation,orthedeicticcenter指示中心.‘this’,‘there’,‘now’,‘then’nearspeaker6.Distalterms远指cansimplyindicate‘away’fromspeaker’,but,insomelanguages,canbeusedtodistinguishbetween‘nearaddressee’and‘awayfrombothspeakerandaddressee’.7.Persondeixis人称指示语clearlyoperatesonabasicthree-partdivision,exemplified例证bythepronounsforfirstperson,secondperson,andthirdperson./formsusedtopointtopeople,“me””you”8.Expressionswhichindicateaddresseehigherstatusaredescribedashonorifics敬语.9.Thediscussionofthecircumstanceswhichleadtothechoiceofoneoftheseformsratherthananotherissometimesdescribedassocialdeixis./formsusedtoindicaterelativesocialstatus10.Adistinctionbetweenformsusedforfamiliarversusanon-familiaraddresseeinsomelanguages.ThisisknownastheT/Vdistinction.用复数形态来表示单数敬语，在语言中叫T-Vdistinction。此概念由1960年的学者Brown和Gilman提出，他们将第二人称单数分为两种形态：T形态（T-form）和V形态（V-form），前者在非正式场合、尊称呼卑、关系亲密的人之间使用，后者在正式场合、下级称呼上级、称呼陌生人的时候使用11.exclusive‘we’(speakerplusother(s),excludingaddressee)；inclusive‘we’(speakerandaddresseeincluded).12.spatialdeixis空间指示语-therelativelocationofpeopleandthingsisbeingindicated.Eg,here,there/formsusedtopointtolocation.13.‘Yonder’那边(moredistantfromspeaker)‘hither’这边(tothisplace)‘thence’从那里(fromthatplace)14.deicticprojection指示投射manipulatespeaker’slocationeg:Iamnotherenow./speakersactingasiftheyaresomewhereelse.15.psychologicaldistance心理距离Idon’tlikethat.itis‘invested’withmeaninginacontextbyaspeaker./speaker’smarkingofhowcloseordistantsomethingisperceived感知tobe.16.temporaldeixis时间指示Backinanhour.thecomingweek./formsusedtopointtolocationintime17.Itisclearthatthepresenttenseistheproximalform近端形式andthepasttenseisthedistalform远端形式.if-clauses18.Intemporaldeixis,theremoteordistalformcanbeusedtocommunicatenotonlydistantfromcurrenttime,butalsodistantfromcurrentrealityorfacts.19.Discoursedeixis/textualdeixis语篇指示语“theuseofexpressionswithinsomeutterancetorefertosomeportion部分ofthediscoursethatcontainsthatutterance(includingtheutteranceitself)”Thisiswhathedidtome.Heripped2撕扯myshirtandhitmeonthenose20.Wemightbestthinkofreferenceasanactinwhichaspeaker,orwriter,useslinguisticformstoenablealistener,orreader,toidentifysomething.21.Reference,then,isclearlytiedtothespeaker’sgoals(forexample,toidentifysomething)andthespeaker’sbeliefs(i.e.canthelistenerbeexpectedtoknowthatparticularsomething?)intheuseoflanguage.22.Thoselinguisticformsarereferringexpressions所指词语,linguisticformwhichenablesalistener,orreader,toidentifysomething.whichcanbepropernouns专有名词(forexample,Shakespear’,CathyRevuelto’,‘Hawaii’),nounphrases名词短语whicharedefinite(forexample,‘theauthor’,‘thesinger’,‘theisland’),orindefinite(forexample,‘aman’,‘awoman’,‘abeautifulplace’),andpronouns代词(forexample,‘he’,‘her’,‘it’,‘them’).23.Inference推断不在了-死了24.attributiveuse归属性用法usinganexpressiontoidentifysomeoneorsomethingwithoutbeingcommittedtotheexistenceofanactualpersonorthing.meaning‘whoever/whateverfitsthedescription.There’samanwaitingforyou.不确定的25.referentialuse指称性用法usinganexpressiontoidentifysomeoneorsomethingwhenthepersonorthingisassumedtobeknown.wherebyIactuallyhaveapersoninmindand,insteadofusinghernameorsomeotherdescription.Hewantstomarryawomanwithlotsofmoney(Theword‘a’couldbereplacedby‘any’)确定的26.name&referents对象Thereappearstobeapragmaticconnectionbetweenpropernames专有名词andobjectsthatwillbeconventionallyassociated,withinasocio-culturallydefinedcommunity,withthosenames.Usingapropernamereferentiallytoidentifyanysuchobjectinvitesthelistenertomaketheexpectedinference(forexample,fromnameofwritertobookbywriter)andtherebyshowhimselforherselftobeamemberofthesamecommunityasthespeaker.a.BrazilwinsWorldCup.Brazil-soccerteamb.Japanwinsfirstroundoftradetalks.Japan-government27.Thelinguisticmaterial,orco-text,accompanyingthereferringexpression./thelinguisticenvironmentinwhichawordisused.28.Thereferringexpressionactuallyprovidesarangeofreference所指范围,thatis,anumberofpossiblereferents.29.Co-textisjustalinguisticpartoftheenvironment