工程硕士研究生英语基础教程unit6

CompanyLOGOUnit6PartAText(Engineering)PartBGrammar(动名词)PartCSupplementaryReading(ThisTITANICFLOATS!)CompanyLogoI.BackgroundInformation1.IndustrialRevolutionTheIndustrialRevolutionwasaperiodfromthe18thtothe19thcenturywheremajorchangesinagriculture,manufacturing,mining,transportandtechnologyhadaprofoundeffectonthesocioeconomicandculturalconditionsstartingintheUnitedKingdom,thensubsequentlyspreadingthroughoutEurope,NorthAmerica,andeventuallytheworld.TheonsetoftheIndustrialRevolutionmarksthemajorturningpointinhumanhistory;almosteveryaspectofdailylifewaseventuallyinfluencedinsomeway.Mostnotably,averageincomeandpopulationbegantoexhibitunprecedentedsustainedgrowth.Inthetwocenturiesfollowing1800,theworld'saverageincomeincreasedover10-fold,whiletheworld'spopulationincreasedover6-fold.Startinginthelaterpartofthe18thcenturytherebeganatransitioninpartsofGreatBritain'spreviouslymanuallaboranddraft-animal–basedeconomytowardsmachine-basedmanufacturing.CompanyLogoItstartedwiththemechanisationofthetextileindustries,thedevelopmentofiron-makingtechniquesandtheincreaseduseofrefinedcoal.Tradeexpansionwasenabledbytheintroductionofcanals,improvedroadsandrailways.Theintroductionofsteampowerfuelledprimarilybycoal,widerutilizationofwaterwheelsandpoweredmachinery(mainlyintextilemanufacturing)underpinnedthedramaticincreasesinproductioncapacity.Thedevelopmentofall-metalmachinetoolsinthefirsttwodecadesofthe19thcenturyfacilitatedthemanufactureofmoreproductionmachinesformanufacturinginotherindustries.TheeffectsspreadthroughoutWesternEuropeandNorthAmericaduringthe19thcentury,eventuallyaffectingmostoftheworld,aprocessthatcontinuesasindustrialisation.Theimpactofthischangeonsocietywasenormous.CompanyLogoThefirstIndustrialRevolution,whichbeganinthe18thcentury,mergedintotheSecondIndustrialRevolutionaround1850,whentechnologicalandeconomicprogressgainedmomentumwiththedevelopmentofsteam-poweredships,railways,andlaterinthe19thcenturywiththeinternalcombustionengineandelectricalpowergeneration.TheperiodoftimecoveredbytheIndustrialRevolutionvarieswithdifferenthistorians.SometwentiethcenturyhistorianssuchasJohnClaphamandNicholasCraftshavearguedthattheprocessofeconomicandsocialchangetookplacegraduallyandthetermrevolutionisnotatruedescriptionofwhattookplace.Thisisstillasubjectofdebateamonghistorians.GDPpercapitawasbroadlystablebeforetheIndustrialRevolutionandtheemergenceofthemoderncapitalisteconomy.TheIndustrialRevolutionbegananeraofper-capitaeconomicgrowthincapitalisteconomies.EconomichistoriansareinagreementthattheonsetoftheIndustrialRevolutionisthemostimportanteventinthehistoryofhumanitysincethedomesticationofanimalsandplants.CompanyLogo2.TheMiddleAgesTheMiddleAges(adjectivalform:medievalormediæval)isaperiodofEuropeanhistoryfromthe5thcenturytothe15thcentury.TheperiodfollowedthefalloftheWesternRomanEmpirein476,andprecededtheEarlyModernEra.Itisthemiddleperiodinathree-perioddivisionofhistory:Classical,Medieval,andModern.ThetermMiddleAgeswascoinedinthe15thcenturyandreflectstheviewthatthisperiodwasadeviationfromthepathofclassicallearning,apathsupposedlyreconnectedbyRenaissancescholarship.CompanyLogoTheEarlyMiddleAgessawthecontinuationoftrendssetinLateAntiquity,depopulation,andincreasedbarbarianinvasion.NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast,oncepartoftheEasternRomanEmpire,wereconqueredbyIslam.Laterintheperiod,theestablishmentofthefeudalsystemallowedareturntosystemicagriculture.TherewassustainedurbanizationinnorthernandwesternEurope.DuringtheHighMiddleAges(c.1000-1300),Christian-orientedartandarchitectureflourishedandCrusadesweremountedtorecapturetheHolyLand.Theinfluenceoftheemergingnation-statewastemperedbytheidealofaninternationalChristendom.Thecodesofchivalryandcourtlylovesetrulesforproperbehavior,whiletheScholasticphilosophersattemptedtoreconcilefaithandreason.OutstandingachievementinthisperiodincludestheCodeofJustinian,themathematicsofFibonacciandOresme,thephilosophyofThomasAquinas,thepaintingofGiotto,thepoetryofDanteandChaucerandthearchitectureofmanygreatcathedralssuchasNotreDamedeParis.CompanyLogo3.JamesWatt,FRS,FRSE(19January1736–25August1819)wasaScottishinventorandmechanicalengineerwhoseimprovementstotheNewcomensteamenginewerefundamentaltothechangesbroughtbytheIndustrialRevolutioninboththeKingdomofGreatBritainandtheworld.WhileworkingasaninstrumentmakerattheUniversityofGlasgow,Wattbecameinterestedinthetechnologyofsteamengines.Herealizedthatcontemporaryenginedesignswastedagreatdealofenergybyrepeatedlycoolingandre-heatingthecylinder.Wattintroducedadesignenhancement,theseparatecondenser,whichavoidedthiswasteofenergyandradicallyimprovedthepower,efficiency,andcost-effectivenessofsteamengines.Hedevelopedtheconceptofhorsepower.TheSIunitofpower,thewatt,wasnamedafterhim.Wattattemptedtocommercializehisinvention,butexperiencedgreatfinancialdifficultiesuntilin1775heenteredapartnershipwithMatthewBoulton.ThenewfirmofBoultonandWattwaseventuallyhighlysuccessfulandWattbecameawealthyman.Inretirement,Wattcontinuedtodevelopnewinventionsthoughnonewereassignificantashisste