Pragmatics

PragmaticsJohnAustinJohnSearleContentsI.StudyofPragmatics;II.SpeechActTheory;III.ConversationalImplicature;IV.ConversationAnalysis.I.StudyofPragmatics1.1Pragmatics;1.2Pragmaticsvs.Semantics;1.3Context;1.4SentenceMeaningvs.UtteranceMeaning.1.1Pragmatics~isastudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication;~isalsoregardedasthestudyofmeaninginactualuse,orincontexts.1.2Pragmaticsvs.SemanticsStableResearchDynamicResearchSentenceMeaningUtteranceMeaningWithoutcontextsWithincontextsDissimilaritiesBothofthemstudythemeaningoflanguage.SimilaritiesSemanticsPragmaticsSubjectsItems1.3ContextContext(语境)isgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,whichincludestheknowledgeofthelanguage(linguisticcontext)andtheknowledgeoftheworld(non-linguisticcontext).1.4SentenceMeaningvs.UtteranceMeaningSentencemeaning(句子意义)istheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication,anditisdecontextualized;Utterancemeaning(话语意义)istheconcrete,extrinsicpropertyofthesentenceintermsofcontext,anditiscontext-dependent.II.SpeechActTheory2.1ABriefIntroduction;2.2AnEarlyDistinctionofSpeechAct;2.3ANewClassificationofSpeechAct;2.4SubdivisionofIllocutionaryAct.2.1ABriefIntroductionFounder:JohnAustin(奥斯汀);Continuator:JohnSearle(塞尔);Marker:HowtoDoThingswithWords《如何以言行事》(1962);Aim:todiscoverwhypeoplemeanBwhilesayingA;Foundation:pragmaticism(实用主义哲学).2.2AnEarlyDistinctionofSpeechActSpeechact(言语行为)meanstheactofspeaking,whichcanbeinformingordescribingaswellasperformingotheractsorbringingabouteffects;TwoDistinctions:Thosesentencesthathavedescriptivemeaning,andhencecanbetestifiedastrueorfalseareconstatives(表述句);Thosesentencesthatperformactionsandhencecan’tbetestifiedastrueorfalseareperformatives(施为句).ExamplesofConstativesExamples:Themoontonightisverybright.Thevillageisquitebeautiful.Everyhumanbeinghashisownrighttoliveindependentlyintheworld.Shewillgiveanoraltesttoherstudentstomorrow;FeatureofConstatives:Thevalueofthesentencecanbejudgedbytruthvalue.ExamplesofPerformativesExamples:Ido.InamethisshipElizabeth.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.FeaturesofPerformatives:“I”asthesubject;Performativeverbsasname,bet,promise,etc;Presenttenseoftheperformativeverbs.2.3ANewClassificationofSpeechActThreekindsofSpeechActs:Locutionaryact(言内行为):thatofutteringasentencewithadeterminatesenseorreference;Illocutionaryact(言外行为):thatofmakingastatement,offer,promise,etc.inutteringasentencebyvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit;Perlocutionaryact(言后行为):thatofbringingabouteffectsofthehearerbymeansofutteringthesentence;ExampleofSpeechActs.ExampleofSpeechActsDialogue:Students:Excuseme,sir?It’s11:50already.(Theimpliedmeaningis“It’stimeforlunch”)Teacher:Ur,ok,classisover.Explanation:Locutionaryact:It’s11:50already(Speakeronly);Illocutionaryact:It’stimeforlunch(Hearer&Speaker);Perlocutionaryact:Classisover(Heareronly).2.4SubdivisionofIllocutionaryActAlltheillocutionaryactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint(行事语力):Representatives(阐述类);Directives(指令类);Commissives(承诺类);Expressives(表达类);Declarations(宣告类).Representatives~state,describe,andsaywhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue;Relatedverbs:State,believe,swear,hypothesize.Directives~trytogetthehearertodosomething;Relatedverbs:Invite,suggest,request,advise,warn,threaten,order.Commissives~committhespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction;Relatedverbs:Promise,undertake,vow.Expressives~expressfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate;Relatedverbs:Apologize,thank,congratulate.Declarations~bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething;Relatedverbs:Name,bet,bequeath,declare,appoint,fire.III.ConversationalImplicature3.1ConversationalImplicature;3.2CooperativePrinciple;3.3Post-GriceanDevelopments;3.4.PolitenessPrinciple.3.1ConversationalImplicatureDefinition:Theideasthatareexpressedwhenpeoplecommunicatewitheachothermaybeexplicitorimplicit.Thoseimplicitmeaningimpliedbyutteranceinconversationiscalledconversational(orpragmatic)implicature(会话含义);Characteristics:Calculability(可推导性);Cancellability(可取消性);Non-detachability(不可分离性);Non-conventionality(非规约性).CalculabilityStatement:~meansthattheconversationalimplicaturescanbeworkedoutonthebasisofsomepreviousinformation;Example:A:Couldyougotothecinemawithme?B:HowIwishthatIdidn'thavesomuchwork!(CI:I’mafraidIcan’tgobecauseI’vegotworktodo.)CancellabilityStatement:~meansthattheconversationalimplicaturescanbecancelledifsomefactorsarechanged,suchastheconventionalmeaningofwordsused,theCP,thelinguisticandsituationalcontexts;Example:A:HowmanycowsdoesJohnhave?B:(a).Hehasthreecows,ifnotmore.(CI:Johnhasatleastthreecows.)(b).Hehasthreecows.Non-detachabilityStatement:~meansthataconversationalimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform.Sothesynonymoususeofthelinguisticformwillstillkeeptheimplicatureintact;Example:A:WhatdoyouthinkofJohn?B:(a).John’sagenius.(saidinairo