7-pragmatics

PRAGMATICSPragmaticsisasubfieldoflinguisticswhichstudiesthewaysinwhichcontextcontributestomeaning.Pragmaticsencompassesspeechacttheory,conversationalimplicature,talkininteractionandotherapproachestolanguagebehaviorinphilosophy,sociology,andlinguistics.1.CONTEXTHowoldareyou?Eighteen.Iknowyourage.FOURASPECTSOFCONTEXTPhysicalContext:Therealityofthesituation:wheretheconversationtakesplace,whatobjectsarepresent,whatactionsaretakingplace,andsoon.EpistemicContext:Backgroundknowledgesharedbythespeakersandlisteners.FOURASPECTSOFCONTEXTLinguisticContext:Utterancesprevioustotheutteranceinconsideration.SocialContext:Thesocialrelationshipandsettingofthespeakersandhearers.Twopeople,talkingloudly,walkintoanindividualstudysectionofthelibrary.Theysitdown,stilltalkingloudly,butnoonesaysanythingtothem.Afteraboutfiveminutes,apersonsittingacrossthetablefromthemsayssarcastically:“Talkalittlelouder,wouldyou?Imissedwhatyoujustsaid.”CONSIDER:Whataspectsofcontextwereatworkintheexampleofthesarcasticcommentinthelibrary?Physical:Wherearethey?Linguistic:Whatutterances(ornon-utterances)precededthecomment?Epistemic:Howdopeopleusuallyactinlibraries?Towardstrangers?Social:Whatistherelationshipbetweenthespeakers?陈望道“情境”是写文章或说话时所处的种种具体环境。进而，他又指出“何故”、“何事”、“何人”、“何地”、“何时”、“何如”构成这种具体环境的六种因素。王德春“言语环境就是使用语言的环境，简称语境。”王先生进一步把语境构成要件分成两方面因素，即“言语环境的客观因素”和“言语环境的主观因素”。前者包括时间、地点、场合、对象等;后者包括使用语言的人、身份、职业、思想、修养、性格、处境、心情等说话人本身的诸因素。102.SPEECHACTTHEORYJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)speechacts:actionsperformedviautterancesHepromiseshewilldoit.IpromiseIwilldoit.12Constativesvs.performativesConstatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish.13Performatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc.14Ido.betyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ipromisetofinishitintime.Iapologize.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.15Felicityconditions:A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure.(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.C.Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.16ProblemswithfelicityconditionsNostrictprocedureforpromising.Ipromise.Igivemywordforit.Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.17Minister:Doyoutake___asyourlawfulwife/husband,tohaveandtohold,fromthisdayforward,forbetterorforworse,forricherorforpoorer,insicknessandinhealth,toloveandcherishuntildeathdoyoupart?Groom:Ido.18FeaturesofperformativesFirstpersonsingularSpeechactverbs/performativeverbs:ThepresenttenseIndicativemoodActivevoice19Ipromisetobethere.I’llbethere.IadmitIwaswrong.Iwasfoolish.Iwarnyou,thisgunisloaded.Thisgunisloaded.Ithankyou.I’mverygrateful.Iapologize.I’msorry.Iorderyoutositdown.Youmustsitdown.20Conclusion:Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives&performativescannotbemaintained.Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.3.ILLOCUTIONARYACTTHEORYCanyoupassmethesalt?22ILLOCUTIONARYACTTHEORYJohnSearle(1932-)Speechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels:Alocutionaryact:theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof“say”.23Anillocutionaryact:anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.InsayingX,IwasdoingY.Illocutionaryforce24Aperlocutionaryact:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.254.CONVERSATIONALIMPLICATUREPeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988)26TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.27MaximofQuality:Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.28MaximofRelation:Berelative.MaximofManner:Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.29CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.30However,CPisoftenviolated.SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.31VIOLATIONOFTHEMAXIMS(QUANTITY)1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。Idon’twanttotellyouwhatIbought.32DearSir,Mr.X’scommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.YoursMr.Xisnotsuitableforthevacancy.332.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.34A:Yourkidbrokethewindow.B:Boysareboys.Wariswar.35VIOLATIONOFTHEMAXIMS(QUALITY)1.Donotsaywhatyoubeliev